Fundamentals of Special Psychology by Kuznetsova. Special psychology of Kuznetsov
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of teachers for correctional educational activities
Section I. General questions of special psychology
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
1.3. Modern ideas about normal and abnormal development
1.4. Factors of human mental development
Mechanisms of genetic influences
Somatic factor
Brain damage index
Mechanisms of social influences in the prenatal and natal periods of child development
Mechanisms of social influences during the period of individual development
1.5. Types of deviant development (dysontogenia)
Age relatedness of dysontogenia
Etiology of violations
The concept of primary and secondary developmental defects. Compensation doctrine
The main types of mental dysontogenesis
1.6. General patterns of deviant development
Literature
Appendix to Section 1
Section II. Mental development with retardation-type dysontogenies
Chapter 1. Psychology of a mentally retarded child
1.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of mentally retarded children
1.2. Historical excursion
1.3. Causes of mental retardation. Classification by severity and etiopathogenetic principle
Chapter 2. Psychology of children with mild deviations in mental development (with mental retardation - PD)
2.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with mild mental disabilities
2.2. Historical excursion
2.3. Causes and mechanisms of mild deviations. Classification by severity and etiopathogenetic principle
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere of children with mental retardation
2.6. Features of the activity of children with mild deviations in psychophysical development
2.7. Issues of psychological diagnostics and correction in dysontogenies by the type of retardation and maturation dysfunction
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section II
Section III. Mental development with deficiency type dysontogenies
Chapter 1. Psychology of persons with hearing impairments (deaf psychology)
1.1. Subject and tasks of deaf psychology
1.2. Historical excursion
1.Z. Causes of hearing impairment. Psychological and pedagogical classification of auditory function disorders in children
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere in children with hearing impairments
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of the activity
1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for hearing impairment in children
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 2. Psychology of persons with visual impairment (typhlopsychology)
2.1. Subject and tasks of typhlopsychology
2.2. Historical excursion
2.3. Causes of visual impairment. Classification of visual impairment in children
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
2.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
2.6. Features of the activity
2.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with visual impairments and correction of these impairments
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 3. Psychology of children with speech disorders (speech psychology)
H.1. Subject and tasks of speech psychology
3.2. Historical excursion
3.3. Causes of primary speech disorders. Classifications of speech disorders
3.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
3.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
3.6. Features of the activity
3.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for severe speech disorders in children
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 4. Psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
4.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
4.2. Historical excursion
4.3. The specifics of motor development in infantile cerebral palsy (cerebral palsy). The structure of the violation. Forms of infantile cerebral palsy
4.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
4.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
4.6. Features of the activity
4.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system and correction of these disorders
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Section IV. Mental development with asynchrony with a predominance of disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior
Chapter 1. Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome
1.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with RDA
1.2. Historical excursion
1.3. Causes and mechanisms of RDA. The psychological essence of RDA - classification of conditions by severity
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of the activity
1.7. Psychological diagnosis and correction in early childhood autism
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 2. Psychology of children with a disharmonious personality
2.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with a disharmonious personality
2.2. Historical excursion
2.3. Reasons for disharmonious development. Typology of pathological characters
2.4. Diagnostics and correction of disharmonious development
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section IV
Section V. Psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.2. Historical excursion
5.3. Causes of complex developmental disorders. Approaches to the classification of children with complex developmental disabilities
5.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
5.5. Features of personality and emotional-volitional sphere
5. 6. Features of the activity
5.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for complex developmental disorders
Test questions and tasks
Main literature
Section VI. Primary identification of developmental abnormalities (the basics of psychological diagnostics)
6.1. Primary identification of children with developmental disabilities using pedagogical observation
6.2. General questions of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section VI
Section VII. Methods for the prevention and correction of secondary deviations in the mental development of children with special educational needs
7.1. General methodological issues of prevention and correction
7.2. Psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention and correction of secondary deviations
7.3. Methods of indirect correction and prevention of personal underdevelopment in preschool age
Working with parents
Increasing the psychological competence of preschool educators
Test questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section II
The textbook describes the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, methodological issues of special psychology associated with the modern understanding of normal and deviating development, the problems of organizing special psychological assistance and psychocorrectional work in the education system, given clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" children with various disabilities in psychophysical development
If you don't see immediate results
good or bad - be patient and watch
Deepak Chopra
Psychological precepts of the future teacher
Give up stereotypes and accept the person as he is.Believe that in every person there is a source of positive development and growth.
Learn to separate individual actions of a person from his whole personality.
Do not judge, do not judge, avoid direct advice and moralizing.
Try to understand the other person, develop active empathic listening in yourself.
Be yourself, do not hesitate to express your feelings, but do it in a form that is not offensive to others.
Master the knowledge and skills that will help you to be confident in your professional competence: “Do what you should. And let it be. "
Do not allow your personal and professional dignity to be humiliated.
Develop the skills of cooperation, dialogical communication with other people, regardless of their age, experience, social status and professional status.
Do not burn off today's energy, reliving a past misfortune or the supposed one: "The day of man's salvation is today!"
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of teachers for correctional educational activities
Knowledge of the psychological characteristics of children with various developmental disabilities (FOOTNOTE: Until recently, the most used term was "abnormal children"; currently there are drafts of state educational standards using the term "persons with disabilities". The search for new terms is associated with general humanization education), both in domestic and foreign pedagogy, great importance has always been attached. KD Ushinsky wrote: "Before educating a person in all respects, he must be cognized in all respects." Around the world, the number of children in need of special assistance from doctors, psychologists, educators and social workers is growing. A complete analysis of the causes of unfavorable trends in both somatic and psychological health and their social consequences can only be given after a lapse of a number of years. However, even now no one doubts that it is necessary to raise the general level of literacy in the field of special psychology and pedagogy among all specialists dealing with children (including parents, preschool educators of all types, teachers, practical educational psychologists, medical workers).The preschool age requires special attention, when the body is very fragile and every day of delay in timely diagnosis and the beginning of recovery work threatens to turn into a tragedy. For example, with a correct and timely diagnosis, instead of deafness, the child may develop only a partial hearing loss (hearing loss), or even with the continued severity of the hearing defect, the child will be able to reach a more complete level of compensation and self-realization as a person.
This textbook is addressed primarily to students of pedagogical colleges and contains the necessary factual and illustrative material in accordance with the requirements of the state educational standard for training in the specialties: "Special pedagogy in special (correctional) educational institutions" and "Correctional pedagogy in primary education."
Educators of preschool institutions of all types, primary school teachers meet with children with various deviations (this especially applies to mild deviations in psychophysical and social development), often before special teachers and special psychologists. It is they who play a decisive role in the primary identification of children in need of in-depth psychological and pedagogical diagnostics and correction. It is no coincidence that the Concept of Correctional and Developmental Education says: “... You can't just train a teacher or just a psychologist. It should be a teacher-psychologist, a psychologist-teacher, a speech therapist teacher, a kindergarten teacher, a teacher. Kindergartens and schools need specialists with basic knowledge in the field of related sciences, well-versed in the issues of correctional pedagogy, psychology, speech therapy, sociology "(FOOTNOTE: Compensatory education in Russia: Collection of current regulatory documents and teaching materials. - M., 1997. - S. 33.).
The book reflects: the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, its relationship with other sciences and branches of psychological science, methodological issues of special psychology associated with the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" of children with various deviations in psychophysical development. In addition, the issues of organizing special psychological assistance in the education system and ways of its implementation are considered; the basic principles of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of deviating development and issues of psychocorrectional work within the framework of the professional competence of a future specialist.
The manual consists of an introduction and seven chapters.
Section I is devoted to general issues of special psychology, such as the history of the formation of special psychology and the characteristics of its current state, clinical symptoms, classification of the main types of dysontogenesis.
Sections IV-V give the characteristics of children with one or another type of dysontogenetic development, for example, section II is devoted to the mental development of children with dysontogenies by the type of retardation, section III - mental development with dysontogenies of the deficient type, etc.
subject and tasks of the corresponding section of special psychology;
the causes of this type of dysontogenesis;
features of cognitive activity;
personality traits;
features of the activity;
issues of psychological diagnostics and correction.
Special sections are devoted to the issues of primary detection of developmental abnormalities (section VI) and methods of prevention and correction (section VII).
The control questions that conclude the presentation of each topic allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material; a list of recommended references for additional study in this course is also offered.
The most important points are illustrated by extracts from the original texts of eminent scholars and practitioners. Some sections have appendices, where normative documents are presented, as well as the simplest methods for the primary identification and correction of deficiencies in the development of children; both future special psychologists and future teachers will be able to use them in their practice.
Considering that the book is addressed primarily to students who have to work with preschoolers and primary school students, the presented material will mainly concern the peculiarities of the mental development of children of this age.
with. 1
Reader 6.5
Reprinted by edition: Fundamentals of Special Psychology // Ed. L.V. Kuznetsova. M., 2002.
P. 286-302
Section III. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
IN DYSONTOGENIA OF DEFICIENT TYPE
Chapter 4. PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDREN WITH DISORDERS
MOTOR SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
I.Yu. Levchenko
4.4. FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE Cognitive Sphere
With cerebral palsy, there is a complex defect structure. We examined the structure of a motor defect in detail in the previous section, where the interrelation of this defect with mental developmental disorders was repeatedly emphasized.
With cerebral palsy, we can talk about a special type of mental dysontogenesis: about deficit development. This type of mental dysontogenesis occurs with severe disorders of individual analyzer systems, including disorders in the functioning of the motor analyzer in cerebral palsy. The primary defect of the analyzer leads to the underdevelopment of the functions associated with it most closely, as well as to a slowdown in the development of a number of mental functions associated with the victim indirectly. Disturbances in the development of individual mental functions inhibit mental development as a whole. Deficiency of the motor sphere determines the phenomena of motor, sensory, cognitive, social deprivation and disturbances in the emotional-volitional sphere.
The prognosis of the mental development of a child with dysontogenesis of the deficit type is associated with the severity of the lesion of the musculoskeletal system. However, the primary potential safety of the intellectual sphere is of decisive importance.
The optimal development of such a child can only take place under the condition of adequate education and training. In case of insufficiency of correctional and developmental work, deprivation phenomena appear and increase, aggravating motor, cognitive and personal impairment.
Mental dysontogenesis of the deficit type is the basis of anomalies of mental development in children with cerebral palsy, determines the characteristic age-related dynamics and unevenness of mental, motor and speech development. A pronounced disproportionality and an uneven, disturbed pace of development, as well as a qualitative originality in the formation of the psyche are the main features of the cognitive activity and the entire personality of a child with cerebral palsy.
It is believed that from 25 to 35% of those with cerebral palsy have potentially intact intelligence, however, the development of these children is in deficit conditions, which affects mental development. Potentially intact intelligence in cerebral palsy does not mean full-fledged, fully consistent with normal development. The main types of mental disorders in cerebral palsy are mental retardation (occurs in about 50% of children with cerebral palsy) and oligophrenia (occurs in 25% of children with cerebral palsy), which indicates a combination of mental dysontogenesis of the deficient type with dysontogenesis of the type of delayed development or underdevelopment ... At the same time, there is no direct relationship between the severity of motor pathology and the degree of intellectual disability in cerebral palsy. With various forms of cerebral palsy, both normal and delayed mental development, mental retardation can occur.
All cognitive mental processes in cerebral palsy have a number of common features:
Disturbance of active voluntary attention, which negatively affects the functioning of the entire cognitive system of a child with cerebral palsy, since disturbances in attention lead to disturbances in perception, memory, thinking, imagination, speech;
Increased exhaustion of all mental processes (cerebroasthenic manifestations), expressed in low intellectual performance, impaired attention, perception, memory, thinking, and emotional lability. Cerebro-asthenic manifestations intensify after various diseases, increase by the end of the day, week, school quarter. With intellectual overstrain, secondary neurotic complications appear. Sometimes increased mental exhaustion and fatigue contributes to the pathological development of the personality: there is shyness, fears, low mood background, etc.;
Increased inertia and slowness of all mental processes, leading to difficulties in switching from one type of activity to another, to pathological stuck on certain fragments of educational material, to the "viscosity" of thinking, etc.
Attention
The attention of children with cerebral palsy is characterized by a number of pathological features. The majority of children with cerebral palsy have increased mental exhaustion and fatigue, decreased performance. Children find it difficult to concentrate on the task, quickly become lethargic and irritable.
Disturbances of attention can be associated not only with cerebroasthenic phenomena, but also with deviations in the functioning of the visual analyzer: with the impossibility of fixing the gaze, with an insufficient level of development of the tracing function of the eyes, with limitation of the visual field, nystagmus, etc.
Usually, with cerebral palsy, all properties of attention are delayed in their development and have a qualitative originality. The formation of selectivity, stability, concentration, switching, distribution of attention is impaired. For example, when performing the "Proofing Tests" technique, omissions of elements (objects, letters, numbers), omission of lines, strikethrough of characters similar in outline are noted. The performance curve is uneven. This indicates a lack of stability, concentration and distribution of attention. Difficulties in switching attention, getting stuck on certain elements are also noted, which is associated with the inertia of mental activity.
Especially significant difficulties arise in the formation of voluntary attention. It happens that the child is not able to purposefully perform even elementary actions. The weakness of active voluntary attention is noted. In case of violations of active voluntary attention, the initial stage of the cognitive act suffers - concentration and voluntary choice during the reception and processing of information.
The study of attention in preschoolers (up to 4 years old) with cerebral palsy was carried out by N.V. Simonova. Children with severe motor pathology (without movement), speechlessness and deep retardation of intellectual development were observed to have a gross impairment of attention. These children were unable to fix their attention on the people and objects around them. Attention to their own actions turned out to be more intact; in part, it was possible to draw their attention to some objects of constant use. With all forms of cerebral palsy, attention switching is especially affected (this in most cases requires a long period and repeated stimulation).
The violations of attention described above in cerebral palsy are reflected in all subsequent stages of the cognitive process, on the functioning of the entire cognitive system as a whole.
Perception
Perception in children with cerebral palsy differs significantly from the perception of normally developing children, and here we can talk about a quantitative lag behind the age standards, and about a qualitative originality in the formation of this mental function.
Children with cerebral palsy have a peculiar development of visual and auditory orienting reactions. In a child with cerebral palsy, an optical and sound stimulus decelerates general movements. At the same time, the motor component of the orienting reaction is absent, i.e. turning the head towards a sound or light source. In some children, instead of orientational reactions, defensive-defensive reactions appear: flinching, crying, fright.
Visual concentration appears in children with cerebral palsy after 4–8 months. It is characterized by a number of pathological features caused by strabismus, nystagmus, or the influence of postural reflexes on the muscles of the eyes.
The tracing function of the eyes during normal development is formed already starting from 1 month. life. By 3 months. the child is able to follow the various movements of the toy both vertically and horizontally. Visual tracking in children with cerebral palsy is formed later and is characterized by fragmentation, spasmodic behavior and limited visual field.
With normal development from 5-6 months. especially intensively begin to develop such properties of perception as activity, objectivity, integrity, structure, etc. All these properties begin to form on the basis of active perceptual behavior. The child is immersed in the objective world, actively mastering space. Perceptual behavior includes active visual "learning" actions and tactile movements. For example, a child, getting acquainted with a toy, examines and feels it. Such visual-tactile cognition of an object illustrates the formation of an image of perception.
In children with cerebral palsy, perceptual activity is hampered due to a motor defect: disorders of motor functions, as well as of the muscular apparatus of the eyes, disrupt the coordinated movements of the hand and eye. In some children, the oculomotor reaction has a reflexive rather than voluntary nature, which practically does not activate the child's motor and mental activity. Children are not able to follow their movements with their eyes, their hand-eye coordination is impaired, there is no unity of the visual field and the field of action, which negatively affects the formation of the image of perception, prevents the development of self-service skills, the development of object-related activity, spatial representations, visual-effective thinking , design, and further inhibits the assimilation of educational skills, the development of cognitive activity in general. Hand-eye coordination in children with cerebral palsy is formed by about 4 years of age. The lack of visual-tactile integration is reflected in the entire course of their mental development.
In children with cerebral palsy, impaired visual perception (gnosis) makes it difficult to recognize complicated versions of object images (crossed out, superimposed on each other, "noisy", etc.). Significant difficulties are observed in the perception of conflicting composite figures (for example, a duck and a hare). In some children, the visual trail from the previous image is often retained for a long time, which interferes with further perception. There is a lack of clarity in the perception of pictures: children can “recognize” the same picture with a familiar object in different ways. Many do not know how to find the desired picture or recognize it, do not know how to find the necessary detail in a picture or in nature. This interferes with the comprehension of the plot pictures. Difficulties arise in writing numbers and letters: the images can be mirrored or inverted, the child is poorly oriented on the line or in the cells of the notebook. Difficulties in the graphic reproduction of letters can be associated not only with a violation of optical-spatial representations, but also with neurological manifestations (ataxia, paresis, hyperkinesis, etc.). Counting disorders can be based on difficulties in the perception of quantity, which is expressed in the impossibility of recognizing the graphic representation of numbers, counting objects, etc.
Visual impairment may be associated with a lack of vision, which is often observed in children with cerebral palsy. Severe visual impairments (blindness and low vision) occur in about 10% of children with cerebral palsy, and about 20-30% have strabismus. So, some of them, due to internal strabismus, use a limited field of view: its external fields are ignored. For example, if the motor apparatus of the left eye is significantly affected, the child may develop the habit of ignoring the left visual field. When drawing and writing, he will use only the right side of the sheet, when designing, he will not complete the shape on the left, when looking at pictures, he sees only the image on the right. The same violations are noted when reading. Impaired visual concentration and tracing function of the eyes, as well as the process of creating a holistic image of perception, can also be associated with nystagmus. The presence of posotonic reflexes also negatively affects visual perception. Features of the visual analyzer, such as decreased visual acuity, strabismus, double vision, nystagmus and others, lead to a defective, distorted perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Thus, disturbances in visual perception in children with cerebral palsy can be explained by the pathology of the visual system.
I.I. Mamaichuk conducted a study that showed that perceptual actions and images of perception (haptic and visual) are formed in preschoolers with cerebral palsy at a much slower pace than in their healthy peers. The decisive role in their formation is played by the mental development of the child. The severity of impaired motor functions of the upper extremities, as a result of which there is a mismatch of sensory and executive actions, prevents an adequate graphic image of objects in children with cerebral palsy with intact intellect, and also negatively affects the quality of haptic perception of figures. In children with cerebral palsy with mental retardation, there are deeper impairments to sensory-perceptual and executive activity, and the degree of these impairments mainly depends on the depth of the intellectual defect. An important role in the development of generalization and meaningfulness of haptic and visual images of perception in healthy and sick children is played by the level of their speech development. In children with cerebral palsy with intact intellect, there was no stable connection between the word and the sensory image, which significantly hindered the correlation of the acquired names with the subject in the process of solving perceptual problems. In children with cerebral palsy, complicated by a mild degree of mental retardation, difficulties in verbal reflection of haptic and visual images of perception were mainly determined by a low level of analysis and synthesis of sensory signals.
In some children with cerebral palsy, hearing loss is noted, which negatively affects the formation and development of auditory perception, including phonemic (indistinguishability of words similar in sound: "goat" - "scythe", "house" - "tom"). Any impairment of auditory perception leads to a delay in speech development. Errors caused by impaired phonemic perception are most clearly manifested in writing.
A weak feeling of one's movements and difficulties in the course of actions with objects are the reasons for the lack of active tactile perception in children with cerebral palsy, including recognizing objects by touch (stereognosis). It is known that in a healthy child, the first acquaintance with objects of the surrounding world occurs by feeling objects with his hands. Through actions with objects, children establish a whole complex of their properties: shape, weight, consistency, density, thermal properties, sizes, proportions, texture, etc. Stereognosis is not an innate property, but is acquired in the process of active object-practical activity of the child. In most children with cerebral palsy, there is a limited objective and practical activity, the touching movements of the hands are weak, the sense of touch and recognition of objects by touch is difficult. According to N.V. Simonova, children with atonic-astatic form of cerebral palsy, against the background of a deep retardation of intellectual development, have the greatest difficulties in the formation of stereognosis. Lack of active tactile perception leads to a delay in the formation of a holistic idea of objects, their properties, texture, which leads to a lack of knowledge and ideas about the world around them, and prevents the formation of various types of activity.
The perception of space is a prerequisite for orienting a person in the world around him. The mastery of knowledge about space presupposes: the ability to distinguish and distinguish spatial features and relationships, the ability to correctly identify them verbally, to navigate in spatial relations when performing various types of activities. Spatial analysis is carried out by a whole complex of analyzers, although the main role belongs to the motor analyzer, which is the main impaired link in cerebral palsy. Due to motor impairment, limited visual field, disturbed gaze fixation, speech defect, the development of orientation in space can be delayed, and by school age, a child with cerebral palsy usually shows pronounced spatial disturbances. In children with cerebral palsy, many authors have found significant violations of spatial perception (R.Ya. Abramovich-Lgetman, K.A. Semenova, MB Eidinova, A.A. Dobronravova, etc.).
With all types of cerebral palsy, there is a violation of spatial perception. With hemiplegia, lateral orientation is impaired, with diplegia - vertical orientation, with tetraplegia - orientation from front to back (sagittal). In the latter form, the distortion of spatial perception has the most severe consequences for the child's psyche.
A.A. Dobronravova showed that the lack of volumetric representations leads to the fact that a paralyzed child has an incorrect idea of the form and essence of the objects around him. In most of the children with cerebral palsy studied, the motor-kinesthetic analyzer was grossly impaired while the vision was preserved. In half of the examined children, the ideas about the volume and the ratio of the plane image with the same volumetric object turned out to be impaired. For example, if children easily recognized a horse or a house in pictures, they found it difficult to choose a similar object among the toys. In a number of children aged 3 - 5 years, the identification of the objects shown in the picture with the toys proposed for selection was made not by shape, but by color, which is typical for healthy children of the second year of life. A.A. Dobronravova considered this as an indicator of the delay in the development of children with cerebral palsy. The children were greatly helped by naming the object depicted in the picture as a researcher. This made it easier for the child to find a similar item among toys. Many children with cerebral palsy had a violation of the idea of the size of volumetric objects. So, children found it difficult to choose clothes, shoes, dishes of a certain size in accordance with the size of the dolls. In children with whom further work on the development of volumetric representations was carried out, the formation of spatial perception proceeded much easier and faster. The data from this study indicate a close relationship between the development of volumetric representations and spatial perception, as well as the need for early work on the development of spatial perception in preschoolers with cerebral palsy.
In childhood, the development of spatio-temporal relationships is a complex process. In preschool age, the formation of ideas about time is associated with the development of an understanding of duration, speed, sequence in changes in the phenomena of the surrounding reality. During this period, children master the ability to distinguish and highlight the signs of time in the process of observing seasonal phenomena and changes in nature, organizing their behavior at different times of the day, indicating a sequence of habitual actions. In preschool age, the perception of time is associated with a system of habitual actions, mainly regime moments, for example: "There will be morning when you need to do exercises." Children encounter dependence on the perception of time and space in their practical, play and other types of activity. In children with cerebral palsy, a variety of links of spatial and temporal perception can suffer: sensory perception, object-spatial and temporal orientation, spatial organization of the motor act, verbal designation of spatial and temporal components.
As a result of research carried out by N.V. Simonova, it can be argued that the formation of spatio-temporal relationships in children with cerebral palsy is fraught with numerous difficulties. Particular difficulties arise when the sequence and duration of events is determined using spatial relationships. The reason for the difficulties in mastering spatio-temporal relations is that in children with cerebral palsy, the formation of spatio-temporal representations occurs with a small inclusion of the active movement of the children themselves, with the limitation of practical, everyday, play experience. Difficulties in distinguishing spatial relations, correct explanations and erroneous reproduction of spatial features indicate a lack of generalized understanding of the verbal formulations already established in children, and the verbalization of spatial relations, which is ahead of the practical development of space. In cerebral palsy, this is associated with the development of the environment on the basis of the most intact (and yet disturbed!) Functions, for example, on the basis of speech.
According to N.V. Simonova, in children with pronounced spasticity, the most pronounced disorientation in space is found, accompanied by a feeling of fear that arises at the first acquaintance with volumetric objects, and then with the development of volumetric representations. The flat image of objects in pictures, as a rule, does not cause discomfort in these children. The author's research has also shown that children with hyperkinetic cerebral palsy earlier show the ability to spatial perception and the simplest generalization. They develop an idea of the scheme of their body earlier, while in children with other forms of cerebral palsy, there is usually only formal knowledge of the scheme of their body, based on long-term learning. The ratio and recognition of individual body parts on toys, i.e. abstract knowledge of the body scheme, in children with other forms of cerebral palsy is often violated. In children with atonic-astatic form of cerebral palsy against the background of a deep delay in intellectual development at the age of 3-4 years, one can notice complete spatial disorientation, which manifests itself especially clearly during the formation of spatial ideas about an object, even a well-known one.
According to N.V. Simonova, in children with cerebral palsy, various links in the process of active perception of space may be impaired, which is clearly manifested in a variety of activities that require spatial representations. These violations increase as the complexity and modification of the activities of children. A special study of spatial representations and elementary practical orientation was carried out in children with cerebral palsy at the age of 6–7 years, who do not have mental retardation, in the process of performing tasks on the development of speech, design and drawing. In addition to the general difficulties of spatial perception, characteristic of healthy children of this age, were found, and qualitatively unique difficulties in the perception of space in children with cerebral palsy, characterized by greater persistence and frequency of manifestation. The formation of spatial perception in these children proceeds at a slower pace, while the level of mental development of children and the nature of their cognitive activity play a significant role. The practical differentiation of spatial relations and the use of adequate verbal designations in most cases in children with cerebral palsy is situational in nature. The greatest difficulties are caused by practical orientation in the directions "left - right" when changing the starting point. The dependence of the level of development of spatial representations and orientation on the severity of the child's general motor pathology was not found in the study by N.V. Simonova, however, the features of spatial perception reflected the nature of the pathology of the motor sphere in various clinical forms of cerebral palsy.
Research L.A. Danilova found that many schoolchildren with cerebral palsy have defects in stereognosis, visual perception of form, and spatial representations in a complex. Violation of these functions significantly complicates the mastery of such academic subjects as drawing, geometry, geography. In addition, these defects underlie a particular type of dysgraphia and dyslexia (writing and reading disorders). In the course of correctional work, it was revealed that at first the defect in visual perception is compensated, then the defect in spatial perception, and subsequently astereognosis.
For the formation of spatial representations in a healthy child, along with the motor and visual analyzers, hearing is of great importance. For 5 months In life, the auditory orientation response is a component of visual perception of space. With cerebral palsy, there is an insufficiency of the spatial-distinctive activity of the auditory analyzer.
Thus, in a child with cerebral palsy, due to motor impairment and other disorders, the development of spatial representations and the formation of a body scheme are delayed.
Some experts note sensory hypersensitivity in children with cerebral palsy. For example, a child reacts with increased muscle contraction to a sudden noise or to an unexpected approach of a person. Muscle spasm can be observed in very young children, even when a ray of sunlight falls on the child's face. The slightest sensory stimulation, if it is sudden, can cause a sharp increase in the spasm.
Thus, for children with cerebral palsy, already from the first year of life, a violation of the process of active perception of the surrounding world is characteristic, which often leads to a delay in mental development even with good potential intellectual capabilities, since it is perception, as the basis of sensory cognition, that constitutes the foundation of the entire mental cognitive system.
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The textbook describes the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, methodological issues of special psychology associated with the modern understanding of normal and deviating development, the problems of organizing special psychological assistance and psychocorrectional work in the education system, given clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" children with various disabilities in psychophysical development.
For students of institutions of secondary vocational education. It can be useful to everyone who works with children with developmental disabilities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Psychological "commandments" of the future teacher
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of teachers for correctional educational activities
Section I. GENERAL QUESTIONS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
1.3. Modern ideas about normal and abnormal development
1.4. Factors of human mental development
1.5. Types of deviant development (dysontogenia)
1.6. General patterns of deviant development
Appendix to Section 1
Section II. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN DYSONTOGENIA BY THE TYPE OF RETARDATION
Chapter 1. Psychology of a mentally retarded child
II. 1.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of mentally retarded children
II. 1.2. Historical excursion
II.1.3. Causes of mental retardation. Classification
by severity and etiopathogenetic principle
II. 1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
II.1.5. Features of the development of personality and emotional
volitional sphere
II. 1.6. Features of the activity
Chapter 2. Psychology of children with mild disabilities
in mental development (with mental retardation)
II.2.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with impaired
mental disorders
II.2.2. Historical excursion
II.2.3. Causes and mechanisms of mild deviations. Classification by severity and etiopathogenetic principle
II.2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere of children with mental retardation
II.2.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
II. 2.6. Features of the activity of children with mild deviations in psychophysical development
II.2.7. Issues of psychological diagnostics and correction in dysontogenies by the type of retardation and maturation dysfunction
Appendix to Section II
Section III. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN DYSONTOGENIA OF DEFICIENT TYPE
Chapter 1. Psychology of persons with hearing impairments (deaf psychology)
III. 1.1. Subject and tasks of deaf psychology
III. 1.2. Historical excursion
III. 1.3. Causes of hearing impairment. Psychological and pedagogical classification of auditory function disorders in children
III. 1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere in children with hearing impairments
III. 1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
III. 1.6. Features of the activity
III. 1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for hearing impairment in children
Chapter 2. Psychology of persons with visual impairment (typhlopsychology)
III.2.1. Subject and tasks of typhlopsychology
III.2.2. Historical excursion
III.2.3. Causes of visual impairment. Classification of visual impairment in children
III.2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
III.2.5. Features of personality and emotional-volitional sphere
III.2.6. Features of the activity
III.2.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with visual impairments and correction of these impairments
Chapter 3. Psychology of children with speech disorders (speech psychology)
III.3.1. Subject and tasks of speech psychology
III.3.2. Historical excursion
III.3.3. Causes of primary speech disorders. Classifications of speech disorders
III.3.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
III.3.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
III.3.6. Features of the activity
III.3.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for severe speech disorders in children
Chapter 4. Psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
III.4.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
III.4.2. Historical excursion
III.4.3. The specificity of motor development in infantile cerebral palsy. The structure of the violation. Forms of infantile cerebral palsy
III.4.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
III.4.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
III. 4.6. Features of the activity
III.4.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system and correction of these disorders
Section IV. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ASYNCHRONICITY WITH A PREVENTION OF DISORDERS OF THE EMOTIONAL-WILL SPHERE AND BEHAVIOR
Chapter 1. Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome
IV. 1.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with RDA
IV. 1.2. Historical excursion
IV. 1.3. Causes and mechanisms of RDA.
Psychological essence of RDA. Classification of conditions by severity
IV.1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
IV.1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
IV.1.6. Features of the activity
IV. 1.7. Psychological diagnosis and correction in early childhood autism
Chapter 2. Psychology of children with a disharmonious personality
IV.2.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with a disharmonious personality
IV.2.2. Historical excursion
IV.2.3. Reasons for disharmonious development. Typology of pathological characters
IV.2.4. Diagnostics and correction of disharmonious development
Appendix to Section IV
Section V. PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDREN WITH COMPLEX DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
V.I. Subject and tasks of psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
V.2. Historical excursion
V.3. Causes of complex developmental disorders. Approaches to the classification of children with complex developmental disabilities
V.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
V.5. Features of personality and emotional-volitional sphere
V.6. Features of the activity
V. 7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for complex developmental disorders
Section VI. PRIMARY DETECTION OF DEVELOPMENTAL DEVIATIONS (BASIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSTICS)
Vi. 1. Primary identification of children with developmental disabilities using pedagogical observation
Vi. 2. General questions of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics
Appendix to Section VI
Section VII. METHODS FOR PREVENTION AND CORRECTION OF SECONDARY DEVIATIONS IN THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
Vii. 1. General methodological issues of prevention and correction
VII.2. Psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention and correction of secondary deviations
VII.3. Methods of indirect correction and prevention of personal underdevelopment in preschool age
Appendix to Section VII
Fundamentals of Special Psychology: Textbook. manual for stud. wednesday ped. study. institutions / L. V. Kuznetsova, L. I. Peresleni, L. I. Solntseva and others; Ed. L. V. Kuznetsova. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002. - 480 p.
Psychological Commandments of the Future Teacher Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of teachers for correctional educational activities
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
1.3. Modern ideas about normal and abnormal development
1.4. Factors of human mental development
Mechanisms of genetic influences Somatic factor Index of brain damage
Mechanisms of social influences in the prenatal and natal periods of child development Mechanisms of social influences in the period of individual development
1.5. Types of deviant development (dysontogenia) Age-related dependence of dysontogenia Etiology of disorders
The concept of primary and secondary developmental defects. The doctrine of compensation The main types of mental dysontogenesis
1.6. General patterns of deviant development
Appendix to Section 1
Section II. Mental development with retardation type dysontogenies Chapter 1. Psychology of a mentally retarded child 1.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of mentally retarded children 1.2. Historical excursion
1.3. Causes of mental retardation. Classification by severity and etiopathogenetic principle
1.4.
1.5. emotional and volitional sphere
1.6. Features of the activity
Chapter 2. Psychology of children with mild deviations in mental development (with mental retardation - PD)
2.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with mild mental disabilities
2.2. Historical excursion
2.3. Causes and mechanisms of mild deviations. Classification by severity and etiopathogenetic principle
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere of children with mental retardation
2.5. Features of personality development and emotional and volitional sphere
2.6. Features of the activity of children with mild deviations in psychophysical development
2.7. Questions of psychological diagnostics and correction in dysontogenies by the type of retardation and maturation dysfunction Test questions and tasks Literature
Appendix to Section II
Section III. Mental development in dysontogenies of the deficit type Chapter 1. Psychology of persons with hearing impairments (deaf psychology)
1.1. Subject and tasks of deaf psychology
1.2. Historical excursion
1.Z. Causes of hearing impairment. Psychological and pedagogical classification of auditory function disorders in children
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere in children with hearing impairments
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional and volitional sphere
1.6. Features of the activity
1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for hearing impairment in children Test questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 2. Psychology of persons with visual impairment (typhlopsychology)
2.1. Subject and tasks of typhlopsychology
2.2. Historical excursion
2.3. Causes of visual impairment. Classification of visual impairment in children
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
2.5. Features of personality development and emotional and volitional sphere
2.6. Features of the activity
2.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with visual impairments and correction of these impairments Test questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 3. Psychology of children with speech disorders (speech psychology) H.1. Subject and tasks of speech psychology
3.2. Historical excursion
3.3. Causes of primary speech disorders. Classifications of speech disorders
3.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
3.5. Features of personality development and emotional and volitional sphere
3.6. Features of the activity
3.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for severe speech disorders in children Test questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 4. Psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
4.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with impaired functions musculoskeletal system
4.2. Historical excursion
4.3. The specifics of motor development in infantile cerebral palsy (cerebral palsy). The structure of the violation. Forms of infantile cerebral palsy
4.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
4.5. Features of personality development and emotional and volitional sphere
4.6. Features of the activity
4.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with functional impairments musculoskeletal system and correction of these disorders Test questions and tasks Literature
Section IV. Mental development with asynchrony with a predominance of disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior
Chapter 1. Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome
1.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with RDA
1.2. Historical excursion
1.3. Causes and mechanisms of RDA. The psychological essence of RDA - classification of conditions by severity
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional and volitional sphere
1.6. Features of the activity
1.7. Psychological diagnosis and correction in early childhood autism
Test questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 2. Psychology of children with a disharmonious personality
2.1. The subject and objectives of the psychology of children with a disharmonious personality
2.2. Historical excursion
2.3. Reasons for disharmonious development. Typology of pathological characters
2.4. Diagnostics and correction of disharmonious development
Test questions and tasks Literature
Appendix to Section IV
Section V. Psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.1. Subject and tasks of psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.2. Historical excursion
5.3. Causes of complex developmental disorders. Approaches to the classification of children with complex developmental disabilities
5.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
5.5. Personality and emotional and volitional sphere
5. 6. Peculiarities of activity 5.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for complex developmental disorders Test questions and tasks Main literature
Section VI. Primary identification of developmental abnormalities (the basics of psychological diagnostics)
6.1. Primary identification of children with developmental disabilities using pedagogical observation
6.2. General questions of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics
Test questions and tasks Literature
Appendix to Section VI
Section VII. Methods for the prevention and correction of secondary deviations in the mental development of children with special educational needs
7.1. General methodological issues of prevention and correction
7.2. Psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention and correction of secondary deviations
7.3. Methods of indirect correction and prevention of personal underdevelopment in preschool age Working with parents
Increasing the psychological competence of preschool educators Test questions and assignments Literature
Appendix to Section II
The textbook describes the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, methodological issues of special psychology,
associated with the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, the problems of organizing special psychological assistance and psychocorrectional work in the education system, given clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" of children with various deviations in psychophysical development
If you don't see immediate results
good or bad - be patient and watch
Deepak Chopra
Psychological precepts of the future teacher
Give up stereotypes and accept the person as he is.
Believe that in every person there is a source of positive development and growth.
Learn to separate individual actions of a person from his whole personality.
Do not judge, do not judge, avoid direct advice and moralizing.
Try to understand the other person, develop active empathic listening in yourself.
Be yourself, do not hesitate to express your feelings, but do it in a form that is not offensive to others.
Master the knowledge and skills that will help you to be confident in your professional competence: “Do what you should. And let it be. "
Do not allow your personal and professional dignity to be humiliated.
Develop the skills of cooperation, dialogical communication with other people, regardless of their age, experience, social status and professional status.
Do not burn off today's energy, reliving a past misfortune or the supposed one: "The day of man's salvation is today!"
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of teachers for correctional educational activities
Knowledge of the psychological characteristics of children with various developmental disabilities (FOOTNOTE: Until recently, the most used term was "abnormal children"; currently there are drafts of state educational standards using the term "persons with disabilities". The search for new terms is associated with general humanization education), both in domestic and foreign pedagogy, great importance has always been attached. KD Ushinsky wrote: "Before educating a person in all respects, he must be cognized in all respects." Around the world, the number of
children in need of special assistance from doctors, psychologists, teachers and social workers. A complete analysis of the causes of unfavorable trends in both somatic and psychological health and their social consequences can only be given after a lapse of a number of years. However, even now no one doubts that it is necessary to raise the general level of literacy in the field of special psychology and pedagogy among all specialists dealing with children (including parents, preschool educators of all types, teachers, practical educational psychologists, medical workers).
The preschool age requires special attention, when the body is very fragile and every day of delay in timely diagnosis and the beginning of recovery work threatens to turn into a tragedy. For example, with a correct and timely diagnosis, instead of deafness, the child may develop only a partial hearing loss (hearing loss), or even with the continued severity of the hearing defect, the child will be able to reach a more complete level of compensation and self-realization as a person.
This textbook is addressed primarily to students of pedagogical colleges and contains the necessary factual and illustrative material in accordance with the requirements of the state educational standard for training in the specialties: "Special pedagogy in special (correctional) educational institutions" and "Correctional pedagogy in primary education."
Educators of preschool institutions of all types, primary school teachers meet with children with various deviations (this especially applies to mild deviations in psychophysical and social development), often before special teachers and special psychologists. It is they who play a decisive role in the primary identification of children in need of in-depth psychological and pedagogical diagnostics and correction. It is no coincidence that the Concept of Correctional and Developmental Education says: “... You can't just train a teacher or just a psychologist. It should be a teacher-psychologist, a psychological teacher, a speech therapist teacher, a kindergarten teacher, a teacher. Kindergartens and schools need specialists with basic knowledge in the field of related sciences, well-versed in the issues of correctional pedagogy, psychology, speech therapy, sociology "(FOOTNOTE: Compensatory education in Russia: Collection of current regulatory documents and teaching materials. - M., 1997. - S. 33.).
The book reflects: the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, its relationship with other sciences and branches of psychological science, methodological issues of special psychology associated with the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" of children with various deviations in psychophysical development. In addition, the issues of organizing special psychological assistance in the education system and ways of its implementation are considered; the basic principles of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of deviating development and issues of psychocorrectional work within the framework of the professional competence of a future specialist.
The manual consists of an introduction and seven chapters.
Section I is devoted to general issues of special psychology, such as the history of the formation of special psychology and the characteristics of its current state, clinical symptoms, classification of the main types of dysontogenesis.
Sections IV-V give the characteristics of children with one or another type of dysontogenetic development, for example, section II is devoted to the mental development of children with dysontogenies by the type of retardation, section III - mental development with dysontogenies of the deficient type, etc.
subject and tasks of the corresponding section of special psychology;
the causes of this type of dysontogenesis;
features of cognitive activity;
personality traits;
features of the activity;
issues of psychological diagnostics and correction.
Special sections are devoted to the issues of primary detection of developmental abnormalities (section VI) and methods of prevention and correction (section VII).
The control questions that conclude the presentation of each topic allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material; a list of recommended references for additional study in this course is also offered.
The most important points are illustrated by extracts from the original texts of eminent scholars and practitioners. Some sections have appendices, where normative documents are presented, as well as the simplest methods for the primary identification and correction of deficiencies in the development of children; both future special psychologists and future teachers will be able to use them in their practice.
Considering that the book is addressed primarily to students who have to work with preschoolers and primary school students, the presented material will mainly concern the peculiarities of the mental development of children of this age.
Section I. General questions of special psychology
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
The emergence of special psychology (from the Greek. Specialis - special, peculiar) as an independent branch of psychological science and practice can be attributed to the 60s. XX century. Then she appeared in the list of scientific specialties of educational universities in the "Psychology" section. However, this was only a formal consolidation of the formation of this peculiar branch of psychology, which had been going on for many decades, which absorbed the accumulated scientific achievements and practical experience - everything related to the study of phenomenology, mechanisms and conditions of human mental development under the influence of various groups of pathogenic factors, as well as patterns the course of compensatory and correctional processes.
Until that time, special psychology was an integral part of defectology - a complex science that includes both a versatile study of the causes and mechanisms
deviant development, and the development of scientifically grounded medical, psychological and pedagogical corrective actions in relation to children with various deficiencies in psychophysical and personal and social development (FOOTNOTE: “... Until recently, the whole area of theoretical knowledge and scientific and practical work, which we conditionally call the general name "defectology", it was considered something like a small pedagogy, similar to how medicine distinguishes small surgery. All problems in this area were posed and solved as quantitative problems. With all justice M. Krunegel states that the most common psychological Methods for the study of an abnormal child (metric scale by A. Vine or the profile of G. I. Rossolimo) are based on a purely quantitative concept of child development complicated by a defect (M. Kmnegel, 1926). With the help of these methods, the degree of decrease in intelligence is determined, but the defect itself is not characterized and the internal structure of the personality created by him.Vsl units after O. Lipmann, these methods can be called measurements, but not studies of giftedness, since they establish the degree, but not the genus and type of giftedness (O. Lipmann, 1924).).
The same is true with respect to other pedological methods of studying a handicapped child, methods not only psychological, but also covering other aspects of child development (anatomical and physiological). And here the scale, size, scale are the main categories of research, as if all the problems of defectology are the essence of the problem of proportions, and the whole variety of phenomena studied by defectology is covered by a single scheme "more or less". They began to count and measure in defectology earlier than experimenting, observing, analyzing, dismembering and generalizing, describing and qualitatively determining.
Practical defectology also chose this easiest way of number and measure and tried to realize itself as a small pedagogy. If in theory the problem was reduced to quantitatively limited, reduced in proportions development, then in practice, naturally, the idea of shortened and slowed down training was put forward. In Germany, the same Krunegel, and here A.S. Griboyedov rightly defend the idea: “We need a revision of both curricula and methods of work in our auxiliary schools” (A.S. Griboyedov. - M., 1926. - p. 98 ), since "reducing the educational material and lengthening the time of its study", i.e. purely quantitative features still constitute a characteristic distinction of the special school.
A purely arithmetic concept of defectiveness is a characteristic feature of the obsolete, old defectology. The reaction against this quantitative approach to all problems of theory and practice is the most essential feature of modern defectology. The struggle between two defectological worldviews, two polar ideas, two principles constitutes the living content of the beneficial crisis that this area of scientific knowledge is now experiencing.
The idea of defectiveness as a purely quantitative limitation of development is undoubtedly in ideological kinship with a kind of theory of pedological preformism, according to which the extrauterine development of a child is reduced exclusively to a quantitative increase and an increase in organic and psychological functions. Defectology is now doing ideological work similar to the one that pedagogy and child psychology did in their time, when they defended the position: a child is not a small adult. Defectology is now fighting for the main thesis, in the defense of which it sees the only guarantee of its existence as a science, namely the thesis that says: a child whose development is complicated by a defect that is not just less developed than his normal peers, but developed differently.
We will never get the psychology of a blind child by the method of subtraction if we subtract visual perception and everything connected with it from the psychology of the sighted. Likewise, a deaf child is not a normal child minus hearing and speech. Pedology (FOOTNOTE: Pedology (from the Greek pms -
child and logos - science) is a complex science about the child, which arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Founder - American psychologist S. Hall. Such scientists as A.P. Nechaev, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, V.N. Myasishchev and others. In the 1930s. in Russia, pedology, which gave impetus to the development of child and educational psychology, but did not clearly define its specific subject of research and was carried away by quantitative methods of measuring intelligence, was closed by the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. The qualitative side is, in the words of W. Stern, a chain of metamorphoses (1922). Defectology is now seizing a similar idea. Just as a child at each stage of development, in each of its phases, represents a qualitative uniqueness, a specific structure of the organism and personality, just as a defective child represents a qualitatively different, unique type of development. Just as water and not a mixture of gases arise from oxygen and hydrogen, also, says R. Gürtler, the personality of a retarded child is something qualitatively different than just the sum of underdeveloped functions and properties.
The specificity of the organic and psychological structure, the type of development and personality, and not quantitative proportions, distinguish a retarded child from a normal one. How long has pedology understood the depth and truth of the assimilation of many processes of a child's development to the transformation of a caterpillar into a pupa and a pupa into a butterfly? Now defectology, through the mouth of Gürtler, declares children's dementia to be a special variety, a special type of development, and not a quantitative variant of the normal type. These, he says, are various organic forms, like a tadpole and a frog (R. Gurtler, 1927).
There is, indeed, a complete correspondence between the uniqueness of each age stage in the development of the child and the uniqueness of the various types of development. Just as the transition from crawling to an upright gait and from babbling to speech is a metamorphosis, a qualitative transformation of one form into another, so the speech of a deaf-mute child and the thinking of an imbecile are qualitatively different functions in comparison with the thinking and speech of normal children.
Only with the idea of a qualitative uniqueness (not exhausted by quantitative variations of individual elements) of those phenomena and processes that defectology studies, does it for the first time acquire a solid methodological basis, for no theory is possible if we proceed exclusively from negative premises, just as no educational practice based on purely negative definitions and fundamentals. This idea contains the methodological center of modern defectology; the attitude to it determines the geometrical place of any particular, concrete problem. With this idea, a system of positive problems, theoretical and practical, opens before defectology; defectology becomes possible as a science, because it acquires a special, methodologically delimited object of study and cognition. On the basis of a purely quantitative concept of children's defectiveness, only "pedagogical anarchy" is possible, as B. Schmidt put it about curative pedagogy, only an eclectic, scattered summary of empirical data and techniques, but not a system of scientific knowledge.
However, it would be a great mistake to think that with the finding of this idea, the methodological formulation of the new defectology has been completed. On the contrary, it is just beginning. As soon as the possibility of a special type of scientific knowledge is determined, a tendency towards its philosophical substantiation immediately arises. The search for a philosophical basis is an extremely characteristic feature of modern defectology and an indicator of its scientific maturity ... Defectology has its own, special, object of study; she must master him. The processes of child development she studies represent a huge variety of forms, an almost limitless number of different types. Science must master this originality and explain it, establish the cycles and metamorphoses of development, its imbalances and moving centers, discover the laws of diversity. Further
practical problems arise: how to master the laws of this development ”. (Vygotsky L.S. Basic problems of defectology // Collected works: In 6 volumes - M, 1982-1985. - T. 5. - S. 6-91.)
Special psychology can be defined as the psychology of special conditions that arise mainly in childhood and adolescence under the influence of various groups of factors (organic or functional nature) and manifest themselves in a slowdown or pronounced peculiarity of the child's psychosocial development, which complicates his socio-psychological adaptation, inclusion in the educational space and further professional self-determination.
Special psychology focuses on children and adolescents with various disabilities in mental, somatic, sensory, intellectual, personal and social development, as well as older people with special educational needs (FOOTNOTE: By education we mean the "process of forming a person's appearance" See: A Brief Philosophical Encyclopedia. - M., 1994. - S. 311.) due to health disorders.
The main purpose of special psychological support in the education system is to identify, eliminate and prevent imbalances between the learning and development processes of children with disabilities in psychophysical development and their capabilities. Special psychology contains the knowledge that can serve as a methodological basis for creating conditions for optimal social and psychological adaptation, including further professional self-determination of graduates of special educational institutions.
Special psychology as a direction of psychological science and practice is an intensively developing field, standing at the junction of the humanities (philosophy, history, sociology, law, theology, etc.), natural sciences (biology, anatomy, genetics, physiology, medicine) and pedagogy. Together with the term "special psychology", the concept of "correctional (special) pedagogy" entered the scientific use.
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
The earliest formed, both in theoretical and applied aspects, were such areas of special psychology as the psychology of the mentally retarded (oligophrenopsychology), the psychology of the deaf (deaf psychology), and the psychology of the blind (typhlopsychology).
Currently, there is a tendency to revise clinical and psychological terms and replace them with psychological and pedagogical terms (instead of “psychology of the mentally retarded” and “oligophrenopsychology”, the terms “psychology of children with severe (persistent) disabilities in intellectual development”, “psychology of children with underdevelopment of the cognitive sphere ", etc. In addition to these areas, modern special psychology includes: psychology of children with mental retardation, psychology of children with disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior, psychology of children with impaired functions of the musculoskeletal system, psychology of persons with disabilities speech, psychology of children with complex developmental disabilities.
In addition, more and more often in educational institutions there are children who experience difficulties in socio-psychological adaptation and learning due to severe somatic diseases (blood diseases, respiratory diseases, various types of allergies, gastrointestinal and heart diseases, etc.), as well as in connection with the consequences of severe emotional experiences (post-traumatic stress disorder - PTSD), exceeding the intensity or duration of individual adaptive
the child's capabilities (children are witnesses or victims of violence, the sudden loss of loved ones or separation from them, a change in the usual cultural, historical and linguistic environment, etc.).
A steady increase in the number of combined developmental disabilities, an increase in the number of children with psychogenic disorders manifested in autism, aggression, behavioral and activity disorders, anxiety-phobic disorders, distortions of socialization processes, significantly complicate and complicate the solution of correctional educational problems, both in general and in special education.
In fact, not only children attending special educational institutions need special psychological help, but also a significant number of children in preschool educational institutions of general developmental type, as well as students of general schools. It should be recognized that at the present time, due to the strengthening of integration processes in education, which are often spontaneous, in one class or preschool group there can be a variety of categories of children, which at one time L. S. Vygotsky were classified as "difficult." These are children of "biological risk", in whom deviations in behavior and various types of activity arise as a result of some kind of organic defect or long-term chronic illness, and children of "social risk", to whom, in addition to juvenile delinquents, children and adolescents with behavioral disorders, at present At the same time, it is legitimate to include children from orphanages and orphanages, children from families of refugees and internally displaced persons. The latter, being in difficult social conditions, often being psychosomatically weakened, find themselves in an educational institution in complete psychological isolation due to ethnic prejudices that exist both among children and parents, and sometimes among educators.
A person with a deficiency in the function of any organ (for example, deaf or blind), suffering from mental underdevelopment, having physical deformities, has long attracted not only the idle curiosity of ordinary people, but also the scientific and human interest of church ministers, anatomists, philosophers, teachers and writers.
The famous novel by V. Hugo "The Man Who Laughs" describes all the tragedy and loneliness of a person who is unlike others. V. Hugo says about the state of a person whose appearance evokes undesirable feelings in a crowd of onlookers: "To be ridiculous in appearance, when the soul is experiencing a tragedy, what can be more humiliating than such torment, which can cause great rage in a person?"
Even now, when the causes of most deviations in psychophysical development are known, the phenomenon of "faith in a just world" influences the perception of people with certain developmental problems - a person has a kind of defensive reaction to adversity: if they happen to someone then he deserves it. In special experiments (M. Lerner) it was shown that the more the victim suffers, the more antipathy it causes and the more the subjects are inclined to justify her suffering. But if a person is not an indifferent observer, but can really help another, demonstrating his strength, competence, responsibility, in this case the level of positive perception of a person with anomalies increases.
The attitude towards children with various developmental disabilities bears the stamp of a long history of selfishness and selfishness of society, which were especially clearly manifested during the years of infanticide (FOOTNOTE: The period from antiquity to the 4th century AD, when mass infanticide was common).
