Air contains thousands of tons of water. How much does air weigh

In the article - “What forces hold thousands of tons of water in clouds in the air or Options for the development of physics”, the mechanism for organizing atmospheric air pressure is initially presented in two comparative versions. An analysis was carried out and a choice was made towards a more logical option. The reasons are indicated why until now there is no clear explanation for this natural process. Then, also at the level of interaction of individual molecules and clusters, their interaction is presented at the boundary between the lower air mass and the higher molecular formations in the cloud. The forces and design features that influence the formation of moisture retention at a certain height, as well as the conditions under which its loss begins, have been identified. In the process of searching for the found explanation, other questions are raised, for which there are also non-standard solutions.

molecular interaction

gas pressure

gas elasticity

gravitational forces

cluster formation

1. Sopov Yu.V. Strong and weak interactions, gravity and entropy have one direction of explanation" http://esa-conference.ru/wp-content/uploads/files/pdf/Sopov-YUrij-Vasilevich.pdf.

2. Sopov Yu.V. "Thermal energy. What lies about her and where is the truth? – http://www.sciteclibrary.ru/rus/catalog/pages/13487.html.

3. Dmitriev A.L. and Bulgakova S.A. Negative Temperature Dependence of a Gravity – A Reality. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Issue 79, July 2013, pp. 1560-1565. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/243678619_An_Experiment_with_the_Balance_to_Find_if_Change_of_Temperature_has_any_Effect_upon_Weight.

4. Dmitriev A.L. Simple Experiment Confirming the Negative Temperature Dependence of Gravity Force, 2012, http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1201/1201.4461.pdf.

This article primarily touches on the basics of physical knowledge about the structure of gases and at the same time relates to the structure of the microcosm in general. At the level of behavior of specific molecules, the following are presented: the structure of atmospheric air pressure, the principle of moisture retention in clouds and the conditions for their precipitation in the form of rain. The nature of gravity on a single atom of matter is revealed.

Comparison of two options for generating gas pressure

All of us, starting from school, study physics. How clear and correct is it presented in textbooks? Let's ask ourselves the following questions.

How do clouds containing thousands of tons of water stay in the air? Why does a huge amount of water fly over the ground and not fall until a certain moment? It is useless to look for answers to these questions in textbooks that can be considered as really quite clear explanations. At the level of behavior of individual atoms and molecules, they are not represented anywhere. At the same level, there is nowhere a description of the formation of atmospheric air pressure.

In school textbooks, the structure of gases is presented exclusively from the position of molecular kinetic theory (MKT). Other options are not discussed in the textbooks.

For an initial acquaintance with the fact that other options are possible, I propose to compare two schematic options for how atmospheric air pressure can be formed, and then present in a fairly understandable form an explanation of the reasons for moisture hanging in clouds and much more.

In Fig. Figure 1 schematically shows a fragment of an atmospheric pressure device according to MKT. Below, a wavy line depicts the earth's surface.

Rice. 1. Atmospheric air pressure device according to MKT

Small circles represent flying bodies of air atoms (molecules), and the arrows emanating from them indicate the direction in which they can currently move. Gas pressure along the MCT is organized due to the energy of impacts of molecules on a particular surface. In this option, it is problematic to see the participation in the pressure of the energy of those molecules that are located from the surface further than the average statistical distance between the molecules.

In Fig. 2 schematically shows another possible option. The necessary initial data to explain this process are as follows: gas molecules are subject to gravitational forces and at the same time repel each other. The source data for this option will be presented in more detail below. For now, it should be noted that there is nothing unnatural in this option. Modern physics recognizes the repulsive forces of gas molecules and presents absolutely elastic collisions of molecules in an ideal gas as a consequence of the action of precisely these forces.

Rice. 2. Atmospheric air pressure device according to another option

According to this option, the gas molecules located above, relying with their force field on the force fields of the lower ones, organize the total pressure on the molecules located below, and therefore on all surfaces located below. The arrows in this figure show the effect of gravity on each molecule. Since with increasing distance between a molecule of gas (air) and the earth's surface, the forces of gravity weaken, this factor in the figure is reflected by the size of the length of the arrows. More length equals more strength. The arrows clearly show that the pressure force of the upper molecules on the lower ones decreases with height. As a result, the distances between the air molecules themselves increase with distance from the earth's surface. From the above it follows that with increasing height, the entire sum of the attractive forces of those air molecules that are located above them is added to the increased forces of attraction of the lower ones.

Comparing these two options for the atmospheric pressure device, it should be noted that in the second option, both the reasons for the elasticity of gases and the explanation for the rarefaction of air with increasing altitude are quite clearly and logically visible.

For greater comparison, it should be noted that according to MCT, atoms and molecules of a gas constantly move chaotically in space, even if this gas is in equilibrium conditions. It turns out that with the adoption of MCT as a real model, it is tacitly stated that in the gravitational field, without the supply of any energy, eternal flights of particles with mass are possible over the earth! How this can happen in principle is not explained anywhere. But this is nonsense!

Any open vessel is filled with atmospheric air. By pumping out or adding gas to a vessel, we can change its pressure on the walls in a sealed vessel. If the gas pressure is due to the action of repulsive forces, then in such cases the participation of molecules farthest from the wall in the pressure does not raise any questions. But if the pressure of a gas on the walls of sealed vessels is interpreted as the result of impacts of its molecules, then one should once again realize that the direct participation of distant molecules in it cannot be traced. Their participation can only be attributed indirectly. But the indirect participation of physical factors is not reflected in the formulas! At the same time, you should also pay attention to the fact that in practical calculations of gas pressure no one ever uses the kinetic energy of its molecules. Empirically found dependencies, i.e. the formulas that we use in real life show that the pressure of a gas on the walls of vessels constantly involves the participation of absolutely all its atoms and molecules. I would like to emphasize that these formulas apply to any period of time. That is, they are valid for every single moment. We compare this with the following position of MKT - “The movement of molecules in gases is random: the velocities of molecules do not have any preferred direction, but are distributed chaotically in all directions.” Consequently, in accordance with this position, chaotic movement should manifest itself in the uneven impact of molecules on the walls of blood vessels. Moreover, this should manifest itself in uneven gas pressure both over time on one unit surface area, and on different areas at the same time. But such manifestations have not been recorded anywhere.

Many may argue that the validity of MCT has been proven mathematically and practically. The work reveals the obvious incorrectness of the description of the circumstances, which is used in deriving the basic MKT equation. It shows in detail exactly how the circumstances were adjusted to obtain the required result. In addition, this work provides an explanation of the cause of vertical heat flows in gases and liquids at the level of behavior of atoms and molecules, i.e. the process of convection initiation as a whole. The mechanism of uniform distribution of thermal energy in any state of matter is described in detail. That is, what relates to entropy has become explainable at the level of the behavior of specific atoms and molecules. That is, this work additionally presents many inconsistencies between MCT and reality.

Practical evidence of the performance of MCT primarily includes Stern’s experience. In this experiment there is a stove, i.e. a hot surface from which metal ions fly out. That is, in this experiment the equilibrium condition is clearly violated, despite the fact that the result of this experiment is for some reason attributed to conditions with a constant temperature.

Secondly, it measures the speeds at which metal ions flew in a straight line from the surface from which they were rejected to the deposition surface. That is, they have nothing to do with the chaotic movement of molecules along the MCT.

Thirdly, if the dimensions of the cylinders used in the experiment were large enough, it would be discovered that the ions, under the influence of gravity, flew along a curve. But atoms and molecules of gases also have mass. This means that, not having the influence of well-defined forces from below and being subject to gravity, they must eventually fall to the ground.

Fourthly, since the metal ions, having flown out of the hot metal, then flew at the same speed, in fact, in this experiment the speed with which their rejection occurred was measured. And it cannot be ruled out that their flight is a manifestation of the forces of potential energy, i.e. work of repulsive forces.

Summary of Stern's experience.

If we rely on the interpretation of this experiment in textbooks and linking it to MCT, then by analogy we can conclude that if you throw a stone, then after that it should fly forever.

Why such a conclusion is hushed up, but the exact opposite is given out is a separate big conversation. In this case, it is more important to understand that for a qualitative analysis of everything that is discussed in this article and in the materials provided in the links below, the approach of intellectuals with an unbiased opinion is required.

Reference: “According to F.S. For Fitzgerald, an intellectual can only be one who is able to hold two contradictory ideas in his mind.”

Introduction to the input data of the proposed option

To move on to explaining how moisture hangs in clouds, a more expanded understanding of what the theory is that is based on the second version of explanations for the formation of atmospheric air pressure.

It is no secret that thermodynamics was developed based on the theory of caloric. Now caloric is remembered extremely rarely, most often with a complete denial of its existence. It is believed that he did not explain the experiments of Rumfor, etc. I inform you that all the answers to the questions have been found, due to the absence of which the caloric was rejected. BUT the result was not at all what is associated with this term. To put it very briefly, a new approach to the materiality of heat has made it possible to explain many physical processes more simply and clearly, including those that modern physics cannot currently explain.

For example, according to MCT, liquid molecules are in constant chaotic motion among themselves. As the temperature increases, their speed of movement increases. Further, the idea arises that molecules, having increased speeds, scatter over long distances after collisions. Based on this, it should be assumed that this affects the increase in the entire volume of liquid. This approach to explaining the expansion of liquids indicates that the expansion should occur due to an increase in the average distances between its molecules. In other words, as if by increasing the gaps between the molecular bodies. But! Further, from reference books we learn that liquids, while significantly changing their volume when heated, retain the same ability to compress. And this has nothing to do with the increase in distances between its molecules. Since in such cases the resistance to the maximum should increase relatively smoothly, and not with a sharp jump.

And there are quite a lot of such examples when the process occurs contrary to the ICT to raise the question of its fairness. In their articles (for example here) on many processes, criticism of the ICT is presented, and at the same time fairly simple solutions are given on topical issues. Including the structure of atoms and their connections with others, as well as optical phenomena.

Initial data and the essence of the basis of the proposed theory

So, the proposed theory is called “Thermal Energy Theory” (TTE).

In TFC, everything is built on only one basic assumption, that there are elements of heat, i.e. elements of the thermal energy component (ETEC), which, repelling from each other, are attracted to everything else. I classify all other elements to which ETES are attracted as elements of the material component. There can be many of them. Therefore, at this stage I do not give them names and unite them under the general name elements of the material component (elements of MS or simply MS-material component). ETES are very small and are included in even those particles that are currently classified as elementary. It follows from this that the latter are not so elementary. It also follows from this that ETES are part of all known atomic elements (protons, electrons, etc.).

That's all the initial data on which all explanations for TTE are based.

We are all familiar with the example of the presence in nature of both attractive and repulsive forces from the interaction of permanent magnets. That is, there is nothing unrealistic or unusual in the initial assumptions of TTE.

And now the most important thing that has turned the vision around to what is associated with the term caloric. The fact is that during the period of choosing the main model, i.e. when the caloric theory was compared with MCT in terms of their capabilities, no one thought of a very important comparison. After all, if we consider the work of the elements of heat not only in the microcosm, i.e. in the interaction between the elements of atoms and the atoms themselves with each other, then one should remember that a gigantic amount of the same caloric elements is concentrated under the earth’s crust. If between any two molecules there are forces of attraction (ETES of one to MS of the other) and forces of repulsion of their ETES from each other, then these same forces must be present between a single molecule on the surface of the Earth and everything that is at depth.

This means that every molecule, every atom of any substance experiences both attractive and repulsive forces in relation to the Earth. Moreover, in this case, it follows from the TTE that with a change in the ETE in the composition of the molecules of any substance (body), the forces of attraction of their molecules to the Earth must also change. But this is so!

From the above and from the materials in the work (which has not yet been translated into English), it follows that ETES, acting as a binder inside atoms and ensuring connections between atoms, also performs the function that is currently assigned to the Higgs boson. In principle, the mechanism of the appearance and operation of gravity became clear, and at the same time many other unanswered questions disappeared. For example, what conditions ensure that an electron moves around the nucleus of an atom and what energy provides atomic bonds.

Reasons for keeping multi-ton clouds in the air

According to TTE, atoms of different substances, even at the same temperature, contain different amounts of ETES and different ETES/MS ratios. It is this difference that explains both the formation of a meniscus near the water and the glass wall of the glass, and the lack of wetting of the glass with mercury. That is, at the same temperature, both attractive and repulsive forces can appear between atoms of different substances. If there are attractive forces between various atoms of a gas (air) and any other solid particles present in this gas, then this is the basis for the formation of clusters.

When describing atmospheric pressure according to TTE, it was mentioned that air molecules have force fields that repel each other. Let us also recall the popular information that the entire periodic table is floating in the air around us.

Now let’s imagine that air molecules themselves can have different compositions of elements and different shapes. The presence of repulsive forces from each other of molecules (clusters) of different shapes and contents indicates that the overall value of the ETES/MS ratios in their composition is quite large. In other words, the resulting force is generated by the prevalence between them precisely of the forces of repulsion between the ETES of one molecule and the ETES of another. In this case, the constituent elements of a molecule or cluster may have a large difference in the values of the specified ratio. That is, they are attracted to each other because some elements have a high value of this ratio, while others do not.

By the way, the transition of a gas into a liquid, and a liquid into a solid upon cooling, is very easily and simply explained by the fact that a decrease in the amount of ETES in their composition significantly reduces the value of the ETES/MS ratio. As a result, a small amount of ETES in their composition begins to act as a binding component to a greater extent.

Having a complex form of structure of their material frame, molecules, and even more so clusters, have a complex outline of force fields. More precisely, the lines that can be used to represent the same intensity of their fields in the plane will have different curvature around the boundary of the flat section of their frames.

Moreover, since different elements with different compositions and ETES/MS ratios are located on different sides of molecules and clusters, the distance of these lines from the surface of the material frame will be different. In a three-dimensional model, these lines take on the form of complex imaginary surfaces. As the distance from the frame increases, they are smoothed out, but the element of irregularity to a certain extent still remains.

Initially, explaining the principle of moisture retention in clouds, we will consider the process in statics.

Let's imagine that the molecules of air and those formations (clusters) in a cloud that contain a certain number of water molecules have no vertical displacement relative to each other. Let's consider what happens directly at the border of contact between air molecules and cloud clusters.

From the above, it is not difficult to understand that, having a complex form of force fields, air molecules and cloud clusters, operating with repulsion forces from neighboring ones, fix their location and at the same time participate in limiting the location of neighboring ones.

This means that each molecule (cluster) of moisture, in order to go down, needs to push apart all those air molecules that are located under it. I would like to draw your attention to the fact that absolutely all moisture molecules in clouds are endowed with this desire. As a result, the air becomes even more dense under the clouds. And with greater densification, even greater efforts are required to move apart the molecules, fixed in relation to their neighbors by the complexity of the shapes of their energy fields. Many people have probably noticed when flying on an airplane that the clouds from below look flatter than from above. I believe that this factor is born from the fact that the surface of the air under clouds and clouds is, as it were, leveled under the average value of the load.

It turns out that a moisture molecule in a cloud cannot alone push apart the air molecules located directly below it and squeeze further down. This is possible only when the gravity of many molecules (clusters) acquires sufficient pressure on a certain bond between gas molecules to break it. This leads to the fact that the onset of rain from a certain cloud occurs where the force of gravity has exceeded the action of the lateral forces that compress the air in this place. And then the rest of the moisture rushes into the gap formed. Therefore, from the outside we often see how the rain begins to fall in the form of a kind of wedge, and not from the entire cloud at once. And since the wind moving the cloud thickens its back part more, it is most often where the rain begins.

Naturally, with the presence of flows, this process is more complex, but the described principle of delaying the fall of moisture should also work in dynamics.

conclusions

As a result, oddly enough, it turns out that the gravitational forces themselves form the conditions for delaying the fall of moisture from the clouds.

Analyzing what was proposed above, in parallel, one can understand why we, having found a huge number of particles that are part of atoms, still do not have a spatial model of the atom.

There is an opinion in scientific circles that one discrepancy is enough to invalidate a theory, and that experience cannot confirm an existing theory, it can only refute it. Why not use these recommendations in relation to what we are already accustomed to and what we consider unshakable.

Bibliographic link

Sopov Yu.V. WHAT FORCES KEEP THOUSANDS OF TONS OF WATER IN THE AIR IN CLOUDS, OR OPTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICS // International Journal of Experimental Education. – 2016. – No. 9-2. – pp. 249-254;
URL: http://expeducation.ru/ru/article/view?id=10490 (access date: 06/11/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

In short, no matter where you look on the surface of the earth, you are bound to see water somewhere. In fact, the place where you are sitting now contains between 40 and 50 liters of water. Look around. Do you see her? Take a closer look, this time take your eyes off these words and look at your hands, arms, legs and body. These 40-50 liters of water are you!

This is you because about 70% of the human body is made up of water. The cells in your body contain many substances, but none are as important as water. Most of the blood that circulates through the body is, of course, water. This is true not only for you and other people: the bulk of the body mass of living things is water. It seems that life is impossible without water.

Water is a substance specially created to be the basis of life. All its physical and chemical qualities were specially created for life.

Other liquids solidify from the bottom up; water freezes from top to bottom. This one of the most unusual properties of water is key to the existence of water on the surface of the earth. If it were not for this property, ice would not be able to float, most of the water on our planet would be blocked in ice, and life would be impossible in the seas, lakes, ponds and rivers.

Let's take a closer look at this case to understand the reason. There are many places in the world where the water temperature in winter drops below 0°C, often significantly lower. Such cold will undoubtedly affect the water in the seas, lakes, etc. These bodies of water are becoming colder and colder, some of them begin to freeze. If the ice "behaved" differently (in other words, if it didn't float), it would sink to the bottom, and warmer masses of water would rise to the surface and interact with the air. But since the air temperature is below freezing, these masses of water will also freeze and sink to the bottom. This process would continue until there was no liquid water left. But that doesn't happen. Instead, as it gets colder, the water gets heavier until it reaches a temperature of 4°C, at which point everything suddenly changes. After this, the water begins to expand and becomes lighter as the temperature drops. As a result, at 4°C the water remains at the bottom, at 3°C the water rises, at 2°C even more, etc. Only on the surface the water temperature becomes 0°C and it freezes. But only the surface freezes: the four-degree layer under the ice remains liquid, and this is enough for underwater animals and plants to survive.

We should also note here that another characteristic of water - the low thermal conductivity of ice - is key in this process. Because they are poor conductors of heat, layers of ice and snow keep the heat in the water from escaping into the atmosphere. As a result of this, even if the air temperature drops to -50°C, the sea ice layer will never exceed a meter or two and there will be many cracks in it. Creatures such as seals and penguins that inhabit polar regions can take advantage of this to reach water beneath the ice.

Now let's go back and see what would happen if the water didn't do this and instead "behaved normally." Suppose water continued to become denser the lower the temperature, as happens with other liquids, and the ice would sink to the bottom. What's next?

In this case, the freezing process in the oceans and seas would begin from the bottom and continue to the very surface, because there would be no layer that would prevent heat loss. In other words, most of the earth's lakes, seas and oceans would become solid ice with a surface layer of water several meters deep. Even if the air temperature increased, the ice at the bottom would not melt completely. In such a world, life could not exist in the seas, and in an ecological system with a dead sea, life on earth would also be impossible. In other words, if water did not “behave abnormally but normally,” our planet would be a dead world.

Why doesn't water work normally? Why does it suddenly begin to expand at 4°C after contracting as it should?

No one has yet been able to answer this question.

Water is “just right” for life to a degree unmatched by any other liquid. Most of this planet, on which other parameters (temperature, light, electromagnetic spectrum, atmosphere, surface, etc.) are suitable for life, is filled with the amount of water necessary for life. It should be obvious that this cannot be an accident, but instead there is intentional design involved.

In other words, all the physical and chemical properties of water show us that it was created specifically for life. The earth, intentionally created for human life, was filled with life with the help of water, specially created as the basis of human life. God gave us life in water, and with its help He gives us food that grows from the soil.

Most of our planet is covered with water. Oceans and seas make up three-quarters of the earth's surface, which also contains countless rivers and lakes. Snow and ice on mountain tops are also frozen water. A significant portion of the earth's water is found in the atmosphere. Each cloud contains thousands and sometimes millions of tons of water in the form of evaporation. From time to time, these vapors turn into water and fall to the ground as rain. Even the air we breathe contains a certain percentage of moisture. In other words, no matter where you are, you will definitely find water. Indeed, the room you are in at the moment contains from 40 to 50 liters of water. Look around! Don't you see her? Raise your eyes and look carefully at your arms, legs, body. 40-50 liters of water - that's you!

In fact, the human body is approximately 70% water. The cells of the body contain a large number of different substances, but none of them are as important as water. Water makes up the majority of the blood circulating in your body. And this is true not only for people: most of the body of all living beings is water. Without water, life is impossible.

Water is a substance created to become the basis of life. Each of its physical and chemical properties is uniquely designed for life.

Or here’s an amazing fact: all liquids freeze from the bottom up, and only water, on the contrary, freezes from the top down. This is the first unusual property due to which water exists on the surface of the earth and ice floats on water. But, think about it, if not for this property, most of our planet would be encased in ice, and life in its seas, lakes, ponds and rivers would be impossible; every winter the life of the seas and oceans would die out.

There are many places in the world where winter temperatures drop below 0 degrees, and sometimes significantly lower. The water in seas, lakes and other bodies of water cools, and part of it freezes. If the ice did not have the ability to float, it would sink to the bottom, and warmer layers of water would rise to the surface. When they come into contact with air whose temperature is below 0, they will also freeze and sink to the bottom.

This process will continue until there is no liquid water left. However, this does not happen. Instead, as water cools, it becomes heavier until it reaches 4º - at which point everything changes and it begins to expand and become lighter as the temperature drops. As a result, water with a temperature of 4º C remains at the bottom, above it is water with a temperature of 3 ° C, 2 ° C, etc. And only on the surface the water temperature reaches 0ºС, and there it freezes. But only the surface layer of water freezes; under the ice, the rest of the water remains in a liquid state, which makes it possible for underwater creatures and plants to live.

Note that the fifth property of water - the low thermal conductivity of ice and snow - is a critical part of this process. Due to low thermal conductivity, layers of ice and snow retain the heat of the water and prevent it from escaping into the atmosphere. As a result, even at very low temperatures, down to -50°C, the thickness of ice in the seas is never more than one to two meters. In addition, there are a lot of cracks in it, which makes it possible for seals and penguins living in polar regions to get to the water under the ice.

Let's think about what would happen if the water behaved “normally”, i.e. if, like all other liquids, the density of water increased with decreasing temperature, and the ice sank to the bottom.

In this case, the process of freezing of oceans and seas would begin from the bottom and spread upward, because there would be no layer of ice to retain heat. All lakes, seas and oceans of the Earth would turn into solid ice, on top of which there would be a layer of water only a few meters deep. Even if the air temperature increased, the ice at the bottom would never melt completely, and therefore life could not exist there. With dead seas, life on Earth would also be impossible.

But why does water behave “abnormally”?! Why does it suddenly begin to expand at 4ºC after contracting, i.e. Did you do what you were supposed to do? No one has yet been able to find an answer to this question.

Water is not only ideally suited for life, moreover, there is exactly as much of it on the planet as is necessary for normal life. It is quite obvious that such correspondences, the significance of which science was able to realize only in the twentieth century, cannot be an accident, but are the result of a purposeful, highly intelligent design.

Life on Earth, created for humans, is possible thanks to water, created specifically to serve as the basis for human existence and biological life in general. The Almighty Creator gave us life-giving water; thanks to the unique properties of water, according to His command, all living things grow, which nourishes us and supports our life.

The abstract on the discipline “The Study of the Atmosphere” was completed by: student of group EPb-081 Chinyakova A.O.

Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor Ryabinina N.O.

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Volgograd State University"

Volgograd 2010

In the atmosphere, water exists in three states of aggregation - gaseous (water vapor), liquid (raindrops) and solid (crystals of snow and ice). The water content in the atmosphere is relatively small - about 0.001% of its total mass on our planet. Nevertheless, this is an absolutely irreplaceable link in the natural water cycle.

The main source of atmospheric moisture is surface water bodies and moist soil; In addition, moisture enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation of water by plants, as well as the respiratory processes of living beings. Calculations show that if the entire volume of water vapor in the atmosphere were condensed and distributed evenly over the surface of the globe, it would form a layer of water only 25 mm high. Much more rain falls as a result of the rapid circulation of the total supply of atmospheric moisture.

L. Amberge supplemented this statistical classification with a biogeographic classification.

1. Desert climates, with irregular precipitation: equatorial climates (coast of Peru), tropical (southwest Africa, southern Arabia), with noticeably distinct seasons of precipitation (Sahara, northern California, eastern Turkestan).

2. Climates of non-desert regions: intertropical with or without a dry season, extratropical continental and Mediterranean (with numerous variations), subpolar and polar.

It is very difficult to determine the index of aridity, or dryness, on which a number of authors worked, including E. de Martonne, Thornthwaite, Banyul and Gossen, Amberge.

Clouds and water vapor absorb and reflect excess solar radiation, and also regulate its entry to Earth. At the same time, they block oncoming thermal radiation coming from the Earth's surface into interplanetary space. The water content in the atmosphere determines the weather and climate of the area. It determines what the temperature will be, whether clouds will form over a given area, whether rain will come from the clouds, whether dew will fall. As it cools, it condenses, clouds form, and at the same time a huge amount of energy is released, which the water vapor returns to the atmosphere. It is this energy that makes the winds blow, carries hundreds of billions of tons of water in the clouds and moistens the surface of the Earth with rain. A complete renewal of the composition of water in the atmosphere occurs in 9...10 days.

Evaporation consists of water molecules breaking off from the water surface or moist soil, moving into the air and turning into water vapor molecules. In the air they move independently and are carried by the wind, and their place is taken by new evaporated molecules. Simultaneously with evaporation from the surface of soil and reservoirs, the reverse process also occurs - water molecules from the air pass into water or soil. Thus, atmospheric moisture is the most active link in the water cycle in nature.

The source of energy for the water cycle is solar radiation. The average annual energy is approximately 0.1-0.2 kW/m2, which corresponds to 0.73-1.4 million calories per square meter. This amount of heat can evaporate a layer of water from 1.3 to 2.6 m thick. These figures include all phases of the cycle: evaporation, condensation in the form of clouds, precipitation and all forms of impact on animal and plant life.

The main amount of water vapor is concentrated in the lower layers of the air shell - in the troposphere, at an altitude of up to several thousand meters, and almost the entire mass of clouds is located there. In the stratosphere (about 25 km above the Earth), clouds appear less frequently. They are called mother-of-pearl. Even higher, in the mesopause layers, at a distance of 50...80 km from the Earth, noctilucent clouds are occasionally observed. It is known that they consist of ice crystals and occur when the temperature in the mesopause drops to - 80 oC. Their formation is associated with an interesting phenomenon - pulsation of the atmosphere under the influence of tidal gravitational waves caused by the Moon.

Despite their apparent lightness and airiness, clouds contain a significant amount of water. Air in which the number of evaporating water vapor molecules is equal to the number of returning molecules is called saturated, and the process itself is called saturation. The water content of clouds, that is, the water content of water in 1 m3, ranges from 10 to 0.1 g or less. The higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it can contain. Thus, 1m3 of air at a temperature of +20 °C can contain 17 g of water vapor, and at a temperature of -20 °C only 1 g of water vapor. Since the volumes of clouds are very large (tens of cubic kilometers), even one cloud can contain hundreds of tons of water in the form of drops or ice crystals. These gigantic water masses are continuously transported by air currents over the Earth's surface, causing a redistribution of water and heat on it. Since water has an exceptionally high specific heat capacity, its evaporation from the surface of reservoirs, from the soil, and the transpiration of plants absorb up to 70% of the energy the Earth receives from the Sun. The amount of heat expended on evaporation (latent heat of vaporization) enters the atmosphere along with water vapor and is released there when it condenses and forms clouds. As a result, the temperature of water surfaces and the adjacent air layer noticeably decreases, so near bodies of water in the warm season it is much cooler than in continental areas that receive the same amount of solar energy.

The mass of clouds and water vapor contained in the atmosphere also significantly influence the radiation regime of the planet: with their help, excess solar radiation is absorbed and reflected, and thereby to a certain extent regulates its flow to the Earth. At the same time, clouds screen counter heat flows coming from the Earth's surface, reducing heat loss into interplanetary space. All this makes up the weather-forming function of atmospheric moisture.

Atmospheric precipitation, together with temperature, are the main climatic elements on which the flora and fauna, as well as the economy of the inhabited zones of the globe, depend. Precipitation is extremely uneven throughout the year. In equatorial regions, the largest amount of them falls twice a year - after the autumn and spring equinoxes, in the tropics and monsoon regions - in summer (with almost complete rainlessness in winter), in the subtropics - in winter. In temperate continental zones, maximum precipitation occurs in summer. The importance of precipitation is so great that some authors use only this single element to characterize climate: desert climate is characterized by precipitation of less than 12 cm per year, dry climate - precipitation from 12 to 25 cm, semi-dry - from 25 to 50 cm, moderately humid - from 50 to 100 cm, wet - from 100 to 200 cm and very wet - more than 200 cm.

The distribution of precipitation over the surface of the globe is basically as follows: very heavy precipitation (from 1.5 to 3 m per year) falls between 0 and 20° latitude, where there is one rainy season and one dry season; almost complete absence of precipitation is observed in the desert zone; precipitation of 400 to 800 mm falls between 30° and 40° latitude; there is little precipitation at high latitudes (70°).

Atmospheric moisture, in addition to the transfer of water and heat, also performs other, no less important functions, the essence and significance of which began to be studied quite recently. It turns out that the water contained in the atmosphere is actively involved in the transfer of masses of solids. The wind lifts soil particles into the air, removes foam from sea waves, and carries away tiny droplets of salt water. In addition, salts can enter the air in molecularly dispersed form, due to the so-called physical evaporation from the surface of the ocean. Therefore, the ocean can be considered the main supplier of chlorine, boron and iodine for the atmosphere, rain and river waters.

Thus, rain moisture, being in the cloud, already contains a certain amount of salts. During powerful circulation processes occurring in cloud masses, water and particles of salts, soil, dust, interacting, form solutions of various compositions. According to Academician V.I. Vernadsky, the average salt content of the cloud is about 34 mg/l.

Dozens of chemical elements and various organic compounds are found in raindrops. Leaving the cloud, each drop contains an average of 9.3 * 10-12 mg of salts. On its way to the Earth, in contact with atmospheric air, it absorbs new portions of salts and dust. An ordinary raindrop weighing 50 mg, falling from a height of 1 km, “washes” 16 liters of air, and 1 liter of rainwater takes with it impurities contained in 300 thousand liters of air. As a result, with every liter of rainwater, up to 100 mg of impurities enter the Earth. Of the total amount of dissolved substances carried by rivers from the continents to the ocean, almost half returns back with precipitation. At the same time, for every square kilometer of the earth's surface there are up to 700 kg of nitrogen compounds alone (in terms of pure nitrogen), and this is already a tangible fertilizer for plants.

Sediments of coastal areas contain especially high levels of salts. For example, in England, rain with chlorine concentrations of up to 200 mg/l was recorded, and in Holland - up to 300 mg/l.

It is interesting to note that the function of rain as a carrier of mineral compounds and nutrients cannot be reduced to a simple calculation: so much fertilizer added means such and such an increase in yield. V.E. For many years, Kabaev traced a direct connection between the size of the cotton harvest and the amount of water in precipitation. In 1970, he came to an interesting conclusion: the stimulating effect of rain on crops is apparently caused by the presence of hydrogen peroxide in it. The normal content of H2O2 in precipitation (7...8 mg/l) is sufficient for atmospheric nitrogen to bind into compounds that enrich plant nutrition, the mobility of elements in the soil (primarily phosphorus) improves, and the process of photosynthesis is activated. Having established this function of rain, the scientist considers it possible to artificially deliver hydrogen peroxide to plants by adding it to the water when spraying.

Air humidity is characterized by several indicators:

Absolute air humidity is the amount of water vapor contained in the air, expressed in grams per cubic meter, sometimes also called elasticity or water vapor density. At a temperature of 0 °C, the absolute humidity of saturated air is 4.9 g/m3. In equatorial latitudes, absolute air humidity is about 30 g/m3, and in the polar regions - 0.1 g/m3.

The percentage ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air at a given temperature is called relative humidity. It shows the degree of saturation of air with water vapor. If, for example, the relative humidity is 50%, this means that the air contains only half the amount of water vapor that it could hold at that temperature. In equatorial latitudes and polar regions, relative air humidity is always high. At the equator, with heavy clouds, the air temperature is not too high, and the moisture content in it is significant. In high latitudes, the air moisture content is low, but the temperature is not high, especially in winter. Very low relative humidity is typical for tropical deserts - 50% and below.

With the slightest drop in temperature, air saturated with water vapor is no longer able to contain moisture and precipitation falls out of it, for example, fog forms or dew falls. At the same time, water vapor condenses - passes from a gaseous state to a liquid one.

Fog is a form of condensation of water vapor in the form of microscopic drops or ice crystals, which, collecting in the ground layer of the atmosphere (sometimes up to several hundred meters), make the air less transparent. The formation of fogs begins with the condensation or sublimation of water vapor on condensation nuclei - liquid or solid particles suspended in the atmosphere.

Fogs of water droplets are observed mainly at air temperatures above −20 °C, but can also occur at temperatures below −40 °C. At temperatures below −20 °C, freezing fogs predominate.

Fogs occur more often in populated areas than far away from them. This is facilitated by the increased content of hydroscopic condensation nuclei (for example, combustion products) in urban air. The highest number of foggy days at sea level - an average of more than 120 per year - is observed on the Canadian island of Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean.

According to the method of occurrence, fogs are divided into two types:

Cooling fogs are formed due to the condensation of water vapor when the air is cooled below the dew point.

Evaporation fogs are evaporation from a warmer evaporating surface into cold air over bodies of water and wet land areas.

In addition, fogs differ in the synoptic conditions of formation:

Frontal - formed near atmospheric fronts and moving with them. Air saturation with water vapor occurs due to the evaporation of precipitation falling in the front zone. A certain role in the intensification of fogs ahead of fronts is played by the drop in atmospheric pressure observed here, which creates a slight adiabatic decrease in air temperature.

Intramass - predominate in nature; as a rule, they are cooling fogs, formed in homogeneous air masses. They are usually divided into several types:

Radiation fogs are fogs that appear as a result of radiation cooling of the earth's surface and the mass of moist surface air to the dew point. Typically, radiation fog occurs at night in anticyclone conditions with cloudless weather and a light breeze. Radiation fog often occurs under conditions of temperature inversion, which prevents the rise of the air mass. After sunrise, radiation fogs usually dissipate quickly. However, in the cold season, in stable anticyclones they can persist during the day, sometimes for many days in a row. An extreme form of radiation fog, smog, can occur in industrial areas.

Advective fogs are formed due to the cooling of warm, moist air as it moves over a colder surface of land or water. Their intensity depends on the temperature difference between the air and the underlying surface and on the moisture content of the air. These fogs can develop both over the sea and over land and cover vast areas, in some cases up to hundreds of thousands of km². Advective fogs usually occur in cloudy weather and most often in the warm sectors of cyclones. Advection fogs are more persistent than radiation fogs and often do not dissipate during the day.

Sea fog is advective fog that arises over the sea during the transfer of cold air to warm water. This fog is evaporation fog. Fogs of this type are frequent, for example, in the Arctic, when air flows from the ice cover to the open surface of the sea.

Haze is a very faint fog. In haze, the visibility range is several kilometers. In the practice of meteorological forecasting, the following are considered: haze - visibility more/equal to 1000 m, but less than 10 km, and fog - visibility less than 1000 m. Heavy fog is considered when visibility is less than or equal to 500 m.

Fogs also include the so-called dry fogs (haze, haze), in these fogs the particles are not water, but smoke, soot, dust, and so on. The most common cause of dry fogs is smoke from forest, peat or steppe fires, or steppe loess or sand dust, sometimes lifted and carried by the wind over considerable distances, as well as emissions from industrial enterprises.

The transitional stage between dry and wet fogs is not uncommon - such fogs consist of water particles along with fairly large masses of dust, smoke and soot. These are the so-called dirty urban fogs, which are a consequence of the presence in the air of large cities of a mass of solid particles emitted during combustion by chimneys, and even more so by factory chimneys.

The fog water content indicator is used to characterize fogs; it denotes the total mass of water droplets per unit volume of fog. The water content of fogs usually does not exceed 0.05-0.1 g/m³, but in some dense fogs it can reach 1-1.5 g/m³. In addition to water content, the transparency of fog is affected by the size of the particles that form it. The radius of fog droplets typically ranges from 1 to 60 µm. Most drops have a radius of 5-15 microns at positive air temperatures and 2-5 microns at negative temperatures.

Dew is a type of atmospheric precipitation formed on the surface of the earth, plants, objects, roofs of buildings, cars and other objects.

As the air cools, water vapor condenses on objects near the ground and turns into water droplets. This usually happens at night. In desert regions, dew is an important source of moisture for vegetation. Quite strong cooling of the lower layers of air occurs when, after sunset, the earth's surface quickly cools through thermal radiation. Favorable conditions for this are a clear sky and a surface covering that easily gives off heat, such as grass. Particularly strong dew formation occurs in tropical regions, where the air in the ground layer contains a lot of water vapor and, due to the intense nighttime thermal radiation of the earth, is significantly cooled. At negative temperatures, frost forms.

The temperature at which water vapor in the air saturates it and condensation begins is called the dew point.