The Iron Age in the history of human development. Iron age

The era of human history, distinguished on the basis of archaeological data and characterized by the leading role of products made of iron and its derivatives.

As a rule-vi-lo, J. in. came to change the bron-zo-in-mu ve-ku. Na-cha-lo J. v. in different regions, it is relative to different times, and what has to do with this process is when zi-tel-ny. By-ka-by-te-lem the beginning of Zh. Century. is the regular use of ore-but-le-for for the production of weapons and weapons, ras-for - no-no black metal-lur-gii and Kuz-nech-no-de-la; massive use of iron from-de-li-na-cha-et a special stage of development already within the framework of the female -something-ryh culture from-de-len-ny from na-cha-la Zh. v. a few hundred years. End of Zh. Century. not-rarely-to-think-that-u-stu-n-le-ni-tech-no-logic. epo-chi associated with prom. pe-re-in-ro-tom, or about-for-va-yut it until the time of the day.

Shi-ro-something out-of-dr-nie-le-for-le-for-tu-v-lo the possibility of pro- developed on co-improvement and further ras-pro-country land-le-de-lia (especially in forest regions, on heavy for the processing of soils, etc.), pro-gress-se in construction-it. de-le, re-my-slah (in cha-st-no-sti, there were pi-ly, na-pil-ni-ki, shar-nir-ny in-st-ru-men-you and so on), additional metals and other raw materials, from-to-products of the wheel-of-forest transport, etc. tie pro-from-water-st-va and trans-port-ta pri-ve-lo to rass-shi-re-niyu to-go-li, by-appearing-le-niyu mo-not-you. Use-pol-zo-va-nie mas-so-in-th-iron-but-no-go voo-ru-zhen-niya su-shche-st-ven-but ska-za-los on pro-gres-se in war-en. de le. In many societies, all this is a way-so-so-in-va-lo differently from the first-in-everyday relations, arose no-ve-nii go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, including in the circle of tsi-vi-li-zations, the oldest of which are -th older J. in. and did they have a level of development, pre-eminent plural. society-st-va per-rio-yes-lez-no-go ve-ka.

Raz-li-cha-yut early and late J. in. For many culture-tour, pre-w-de all ev-ro-pei-skikh, gran-ni-tsu me-w-do ni-mi, like pra-vi-lo, from-but-sit to the epo-he crumbling anti-tich-noy qi-vi-li-zation and na-stu-p-le-niya Middle-not-ve-ko-vya; a number of ar-heo-logs so-ot-no-sit fi-nal early Zh. v. with the beginning of the influence of Rome. culture on pl. na-ro-dy Ev-ro-py in 1 century. BC NS. - 1 c. n. NS. In addition, different regions have their own internal. per-rio-di-zation of the iron-but-th-ka.

According to “J. v." use-use-is-is-Xia pre-w-de of everything for the study of the first-in-everyday-life societies. Processes associated with the hundred-new-le-ni and the development of go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, for-mi-ro-va -n-em modern. na-ro-dov, as pra-vi-lo, ras-smat-ri-va-yut not so much within the framework of ar-heo-logic. culture and "centuries", how much in the context of the history of co-vet-st-vu-si-su-darties and eth-no-sovs. Namely with no-mi so-from-but-syat-Xia pl. ar-heo-log-gich. culture-tu-ry of the late Zh. century.

Ras-pro-passion-no-ness of black metal-lur-gii and metal-lo-processing-bot-ki. The ancient shim center of the metal-lur-gii of the same-les-za was the regi-on of Asia Minor, Vost. Sred-di-earth-no-sea-rya, Za-kav-ka-zya (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). Swe-de-tel-st-va about shi-ro-com use-pol-zo-va-nii zhe-le-za po-ya-yut-sya in texts with ser. 2nd thousand Po-ka-for-tel-but-sla-ness of the Hittite king fa-rao-nu Ram-se-su II with co-general -prav-ke co-slave, na-gru-wen-no-go-le-zom (late 14th - early 13th centuries). Means. the number of wicks from de-liy nai-de-no on ar-heo-logic. pa-mint-ni-kakh 14-12 centuries. But in the Hittite tsar-st-va, steel has been known in Pa-les-sti-not from the 12th century, on Ki-pre - from the 10th century. One of the ancient ones on-ho-dock metal-lur-gi-che-sko-gor-na from-but-sit-Xia to ru-be-zhu 2-nd and 1-st thousand (Kve-mo-Bol-ni-si, territory-ri-to-riya of modern Georgia), walked - in the layers of ar-hai-che-go-go period-da Mi -let. On the ru-be-same 2 - 1st thousand. na-stu-drank in Me-so-po-ta-mi and Ira-not; so, during the excavations of the palace of Sar-go-on II in Khor-sa-ba-de (4th quarter of the 8th century) ob-na-ru-same-but approx. 160 t the same-le-for, in the main. in the view de krits (ve-ro-yat-no, tribute from the subordinate territories). Possibly, from Iran at the beginning. Of the 1st thousand black metal-lur-giya ras-pro-stra-ni-las in India (where na-cha-lo shi-ro-ko-go is-pol-zo-va- niya zhe-les-za from-but-sit to the 8th or 7th / 6th centuries), in the 8th century. - on Wednesday. Asia. In the steps of Asia, zhe-le-zo on-lu-chi-lo shi-ro-some ras-penetration not earlier than 6/5 centuries.

Through the Greek. go-ro-da of Minor Asia iron-de-la-tel-ny-ki races-pro-stra-ni-were in the con. 2nd thousand to the Aegean Islands and approx. 10 c. to mainland Greece, where since that time, there are known to-var-nye kry-tsy, iron swords in g-be-no-yah. In Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-pe J. v. on-stu-drank in the 8-7 centuries, in the South-West. Euro-ro-pe - in the 7-6 centuries, in Bri-ta-nii - in the 5-4 centuries, in Skan-di-na-viii - fact-ti-che-ski in ru-be-same er ...

All in. Pri-black-but-sea-rye, in the North. Kav-ka-ze and in the south-ta-hedgehog Vol-go-Ka-mye per-ri-od of the first-vich-no-go-voy-niya zhe-le-za-ver-shil - in the 9th-8th centuries; along-with things, from-go-to-len-us in the local tradition, here is known from de-lia, created -nye in the zakav-kaz-kaz-tradition of receiving the steel (ce-ment-ta-tion). Na-cha-lo sob-st-ven-no Zh. in the indicated and tested their influence in the regions of Vost. Ev-ro-py from-but-sit to the 8-7 centuries. Then, su-sh-st-ven-but you-grew-lo-number-of-iron-items, reception-we them from-go-to-le-nia ha-ti-were on-you-ka-ka-ka-ki-ki-ki (with the help of special presses and stamps), welding-ki vna-whip and me-to-house pa-ke-ti-ro-va-nia. In the Urals-le and in the C-bi-ri J. in. earlier than all (to the middle of the 1st millennium BC) I found in the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain-forest regions. In tai-ge and in the Dal-nem Vos-to-ke and in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC NS. in fact, it was about the bronzed century, but the seeding was closely connected with the culture of J. v. (is-key-tea northern part of tai-gi and tun-dr).

In Ki-tai, the development of black metal-lur-gii went about-so-len-but. Because of you-so-chai-she-level-ny bron-zo-li-tei-no-go pro-from-water-st-va Zh. V. started here not earlier than ser. 1st millennium BC e., although the ore-le-zo was known for a long time before this. Whale. mas-te-ra per-you-mi na-cha-li tse-le-na-right-len-but pro-from-in-dit chu-gun and, using-using it, it is easy-to-float- bone, from-go-to-la-whether pl. from de-lia not forging, but pouring. In Ki-tai, there arose-nick-la prak-ti-ka you-work-bot-ki co-who-go-le-za from chu-gu-na pu-dark from the bottom of the con-der-zha -niya ug-le-ro-da. In Ko-rei Zh. In. on-stu-drank in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e., in Japan - c. 3rd-2nd centuries, in Ying-do-ki-tai and Ying-do-ne-zii - to ru-be-zhu er or a little later.

In Af-ri-ke Zh. Century. earlier than all, us-ta-no-vil-sya in Sred-di-earth-no-sea-rye (by the 6th century). All R. 1st millennium BC NS. he started on the territory of Nu-bii and Su-da-na, in a row of rayons Zap. Af-ri-ki; in Vostochnoy - on ru-be-same er; in the South - closer to the middle. 1st millennium AD NS. In the row de rai-ons Af-ri-ki, in Ameri-ke, Av-st-ra-lii and on the islands of Ti-ho-go approx. Zh. In. na-stu-drank with pri-ho-house ev-ro-pei-ts.

Important cultures of the early iron-no-go ve-ka for the pre-de-la-mi tsi-vi-li-zation

Following the shi-ro-coy races-pro-country-ness and comparative lightness of the development of the bot-ki of the iron ores of the bron-zo -li-tei-nye centers in-ste-pen-no ut-ra-chi-va-li-no-in-liu on pro-because of metal-la. Many of the older re-gions have become technologically advanced. and so-qi-al-no-eco-no-mich. level old cultural centers. Co-from-vet-st-ven-but from-me-ni-moose paradise-they-ro-va-oy-ku-me-ny. If, for the era of early-ne-go, metal-la, an important culture-tu-ro-forming-factor-to-rum was -lur-gi-che-provinion or to the zone of its influence, then in the Zh. century. in form-mi-ro-va-nii culture-tur-no-is-to-rich. general-no-sta increased the role of et-nov-zy-ko-vy, ho-zyay-st-ven-no-cultural and other connections. Shi-ro-something ras-pro-passion-no-ee-fektiv-no-go voo-ru-ze-nia from iron spo-so-st-in-va-lo in-vle-che -niy pl. communities in gra-b-tels and grab-nich. wars, co-pro-in-f-give-shie-Xia mas-co-mi mi-gras-mi. All this came to the card-di-nal of-me-not-not-yam eth-no-cultural-tur-noy and vo-en.-po-li-tich. pa-no-ra-we.

In a number of cases, on the basis of the data lin-gvis-ti-ki and letters. from-to-no-kov, you can talk about do-mi-ni-ro-va-nii in the framework of op-re-de-len-cult-tur-is-is-to- rich. general-no-stay Zh. in. one or a group of languages-ku-ku-ro-dov, sometimes even to associate a group-pu ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-nikov with a specific on-ro-house. However, written sources for many. the regions are scarce or from-day-st-woo-yut, yes, not for all communities it is possible to get data, with-from-not-sti them with lin-gvis-ti-che-class-si-fi-ka-tsi-her na-ro-dov. It is necessary to have in mind that no-si-te-li pl. tongues, maybe, yes, whole seven languages, not os-ta-vi-li straight languages-to-tom-kov, but their relation to the well-known eth-no-I-zy-kov common-no-sts gi-po-te-tich-no.

South, West, West, Central Euro-pa and south of the Bal-tiy-go region. After the collapse of the Kri-to-mi-ken-ci-vi-li-zation, the beginning of the Zh. Century. in Greece, Ancient coincided with the temporary decline of the "dark ages". Subsequently, shi-ro-something out-of-dre-a-le-for a way-so-st-in-va-lo no-in-th-th-e-mu-ek-no-mi-ki and society, with -leading to the form-mi-ro-va-tion of the anti-tich-noy qi-vi-li-zation. On the territory-ri-to-riy of Italy for na-cha-la Zh. V. you-de-la-yut many ar-heo-logos. culture-tu-ry (some of them formed-mi-ro-wa-were in the bron-zo-vy-ke): on se-ve-ro-for-pas-de - Go- la-sek-ka, co-from-no-si-myu with a part of li-gu-dov; in the middle of the river. Po - Ter-ra-mar, on se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke - Es-te, co-post-tav-lae-my with ve-not-ta-mi; all in. and center. parts of the Apen-nin-sko-go-th peninsula - Vil-la-no-va, etc., in Kam-pa-nii and Ka-lab-rii - "yam-ny-g-be-niy" , pa-myat-ni-ki Apu-lii connect-zy-va-yut with me-sa-na-mi (close to il-li-rii-tsam). In Si-tsi-lii from the West-on culture-tu-ra Pan-ta-li-ka and others, on Sar-di-nii and Kor-si-ke - nu-rag.

On the Pi-re-ney-skom peninsula, there are large centers of pre-colored metals, which caused long pre-ob-la-da-iz-de-lies from bronze (culture of Tar-tess, etc.). In early J. here fick-si-ru-yut-Xia different in harak-te-ra and in-ten-siv-ness of waves of mi-gra-tions, in -mint-ni-ki, reflecting places and bringing-not-hay-ny-ny traditions. On the basis of a part of these traditions of sfor-mi-ro-va-las there was a culture of ple-men of Iberians. In the greatest degree-p-ni, its-own-form-of-ra-zie of traditions was kept in the pri-at-lan-ti-che-las-tyah -tu-ra go-ro-dish ”and others).

For the development of culture Sredi-di-zem-no-sea-rya strong air-effect of the eye-for-whether fi-ni-kiy-sky and Greek. ko-lo-ni-za-tion, races-color of culture and ex-pan-sia et-ru-skov, second-genie of Celts; later Sred-di-earth-m. became inner-nim for Rome. im-peri (see Ancient Rome).

On the sign-cheat. part Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-py pe-re-move to Zh. In. pro-ex-ho-dyl in the epo-hu Gal-state. Gal-civilian culture-tour-area de-lit-Xia into pl. cultures and cultural groups. Some of them are in the east. zo-not so-ot-no-sit with group-pa-mi il-li-riy-tsev, in the west - with kel-ta-mi. In one of the oblasts-tei zap. zones of sfor-mi-ro-wa-las culture-tu-ra La-ten, then ras-pro-country-niv-shaya-Xia on the og-rum-noy ter-ri-to-rii in ho -de ex-pan-sii and the influence of the Celts. Their achievements in metal-lur-gii and metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ke, for-im-st-in-van-nye sowing. and east. so-se-dy-mi, about-us-lo-vi-whether the state-support of the iron-from-de-li. Epo-ha La-ten op-re-de-la-et special per-ri-od ev-rop. is-to-rii (c. 5-1 centuries BC), its financial is connected with the ex-pan-si-she Ri-ma (for ter-ri-to-rii to the Ve-ru from the culture of La-ten this epo-hu na-zy-va-yut is also "pre-Roman", "early-no-iron-but-no-go ve-ka", etc. NS.).

On the Bal-ka-nakh, east-to-more-il-li-riy-tsev, and on the north to the Dnieper, ras-po-la-ha-lis culture-tu-ry, connected-zy- vaye with fra-kiy-ts-mi (their influence-ing the dos-ti-ha-lo of the Dnieper, North. wa). For designation at the end of the bron-zo-in-th century and in na-cha-le Zh. Century. the commonality of these cultures is using the term “Frakiy Gal-State”. OK. ser. 1st millennium BC NS. usi-li-va-em-Xia its own form of "Fra-ki-sky" culture-tur sowing. the zones where the warehouses-dy-va-yut-sya ob-e-di-no-nia ge-tov, then da-kov, to the south. zo-not ple-me-na fra-kiy-tsev I got-pa-if in close contact-you with g-ka-mi, pro-dv-gav-shi-mi-sya-da group pa-mi ski-fov, cel-tov, etc., and then there were-so-di-ne-us to Rome. im-peri.

At the end of the bron-zo-in-th century in the South. Scan-di-na-vii and from-part-south-fick-si-ru-yut upa-dock culture, and the new rise connects with ras-pro -Fear-not-no-it and shi-ro-kim use-pol-zo-va-no-it-le-z. Many cultures of Zh. Century. to se-ve-ru from the cel-tos it is not-zya so-from-not-sti with the well-known groups-pa-mi na-ro-dov; more reliable co-delivery of the form-mi-ro-va-nia ger-man-tsev or their significant part with the yas-peat culture -Roy. To the east-ku from its area-la and the top-ho-viy El-would to the bas-se-on of the Vis-ly pe-re-move to the Zh. Century. pro-ex-went in the framework of the lu-zhits-koi culture, at the later stage, there was a swarm of cal-ny groups. On the basis of one of them, there was a sea-like culture, ras-pro-country-niv-shaya in the middle. 1st millennium BC NS. on the significant part of the lu-zhits-to-go area-la. Close to the end of the epo-hee La-ten in Polish. In the sea-rye, there was an ok-syv-skaya culture, to the south - pshe-vor-skaya culture. In the new era (in the framework of the 1st-4th centuries AD), by the best name. "Roman im-persian", "pro-vin-tsi-al-no-roman influences", etc., to se-ve-ro-vos-to-ku from the prostrate Im-peri ve-du-s-loy hundred-but-vyat-sya diff. un-unity-not-nia ger-man-ts.

From Ma-zur-sko-go Po-lake-rya, part of Ma-zo-vii and Pod-la-shya to no-zo-vii Pre-go-li in la-ten time you- de-la-yut so-called. kul-tu-ru of the West-Pad-no-Balt chickens. Her relationship with the following cultures for a number of regions is controversial. In Rome. time is here fik-si-ru-yut-sya culture-tu-ry, connected with na-ro-da-mi, from-no-si-we-mi to the ball-there, in number of ko-to-rykh - ga-lin-dy (see Bo-ga-chev-kul-tu-ra), su-da-you (su-di-ny), es-tii, co- supplied with the sam-bey-sko-na-tang-gsk culture, etc. ny-ro-dov zap. and east-to-the-right ("le-to-li-tov-skikh") bal-tov is relative to the 2nd half. 1st millennium AD e., that is, late-not-to-the-iron-but-to-the-ku-ku.

Step-pi Ev-ra-zii, forest zone and tun-dr of the East Ev-ro-py and C-bi-ri. To na-cha-lu J. v. in the steppe belt of Eurasia, pro-ty-nuv-shem-Xia from Wed. Du-naya to Mon-go-lii, there was a certain amount of water. Mo-bility and or-ga-ni-zo-van-ness, along with the mass of effective but-go) weapons and ammunition, became the reason for the war-en.-in-li-tich. zn-chi-mo-sti ob-e-di-not-niy k-chev-nikov, not-rarely-to-races-about-countries-having power on the con-seated sedentary shoulders me-na and the former serious threat for go-su-darties from Sred-di-earth-no-sea to Dal-no-go Vos-to-ka.

In Hebrew. step-pyah with ser. or con. 9 to early. 7th century BC NS. do-mi-ni-ro-va-la community, with which-swarm, in the opinion of a number-yes is-sl-do-va-te-lei, are connected-for-us kim-me- rii-tsy. With her na-ho-di-lied in close con-tak-te ple-me-na le-so-ste-pi (black-no-les-kul-tu-ra, bon-da-ri- Khin culture, etc.).

By the 7th century. BC NS. from Pri-do-na-vya to Mon-go-lii sfor-mi-ro-val-sya "ski-fo-si-bir-sky world", within the framework of ko-to-ro-go you-de -la-yut a Scythian ar-heo-lo-gi-che-culture, sav-ro-mat-skuyu ar-cheo-log-gi-che-culture, sa- ko-mas-sa-get-sko-go kru-ga culture, pa-zy-ryk culture, Uyuk culture, ta-gar culture -ru (one-st-ven-ny, co-kept-niv-shuyu pro-from-to-so-co-ka-che-st-vein bron-zo-vy from-de-li) and others, in a different degree-ne-ni with-ot-no-si-mi with ski-fa-mi and na-ro-da-mi "ge-ro-do-to-howl" Scythia , sav-ro-ma-ta-mi, sa-ka-mi, mas-sa-ge-ta-mi, yuech-zha-mi, usu-nya-mi, etc. Pre-sta-vi-te-li this community was pre-them. ev-ro-peo-i-dy, ve-ro-yat-but, means-chit. some of them go-vo-ri-la in Iranian languages.

In close contact with the "Kim-Meri-skaya" and "Scythian" in common, there were ple-me-in Crimea and from-li-chav- neck-high high-level metal-lo-processing-bot-ki for-se-le-nie North. Kav-ka-za, yuzh-no-ta-hedgehog-no-go Vol-go-Ka-mya (ki-zil-ko-bin-kul-tu-ra, me-ot-skaya ar-heo-lo -gi-che-kul-tu-ra, ko-ban-kul-tu-ra, anan-in-kul-tu-ra). Significantly the influence of the "Kim-Meri-koi" and the Scythian culture on the seeding of the Middle and Lower Po-du-na -vya. That is why you-de-lae-are "kim-merii-sky" (aka "pre-Scythian") and "Scythian" epo-chi use-use-use-sy during the study, not only the culture of the step-pi.

In the 4-3 centuries. BC NS. in the steps of Ev-ro-py, Ka-zakh-sta-na and Yuzh. For-Ural-lya on the change-over of Scythian and Sav-ro-ma-tskoy come sar-mat-skie ar-heo-lo-gi-che-kul-tu-ry, op-re -making epochs, subdivided into early, middle, late period and lasting until the 4th century. n. NS. Means. the influence of sar-mat-cult-tours pro-follow-zhi-va-et-sya on the North. Kav-ka-ze, which reflects both the re-seeding of part of the step-no-go-se-le-niya, and the trans-form-ma-tion under its influence of local cultures. Sar-ma-you pro-ni-ka-li and yes-le-ko to the forest-step-nye districts - from the Dnieper-ro-v'ya to the North. Ka-zah-sta-na, in various forms of kon-tak-ti-ruya with a place-st-ny-se-le-ni. Large stationary plantations and commercial centers to the east of Wed. Du-naya get in touch with sar-ma-ta-mi Al-fel-da. Partly pro-continuing traditions of the previous epoch, meaning chit. ste-pe-ni sar-ma-ti-zi-ro-wan-naya and el-li-ni-zi-ro-wan-naya, the so-called. The late Scythian culture co-stored in the no-calls of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where there was a tsey in Ne-apo-le Scythian, part of the Skee-fs, according to the letter. source-to-no-kam, skon-tsen-tri-ro-va-las on the Lower Du-nai; to the "late-not-Scythian" a number of is-sl-do-va-te-lei from-no-sit and some groups of pa-myat-nikov east-ev- rop. le-so-ste-pi.

To the Center. Asia and South. Ci-bi-ri end of the epo-hee "ski-fo-si-bir-sko-go-mi-ra" is associated with the rise of the volume-e-di-no-nia hun - well, at stake. 3 c. BC NS. under Mao-du-no. Ho-cha in the middle. 1 c. BC NS. it fell apart, south. hun-well po-pa-li in or-bi-tu whale. influence, and sowing. hun-well, there would be windows-cha-tel-but once-thunder-le-ny to ser. 2 c. n. e., the "Hunnish" epoch-hu pro-va-yut to the middle. 1st millennium AD NS. Pa-myat-ni-ki, co-ot-no-si-mye with syun-nu (hun-nu), known to zn-chit. parts Za-bai-ka-lya (for example, Ivol-gin ar-cheo-log-gi-complex complex, Il-mo-vaya pad), Mon-go-lii, step- Noah Man-chzhu-rii and witness-de-tel-st-vu-yut about the complex eth-no-cultural-turn of the staff of this un-unity. Along-rya-du with pro-nick-no-ve-no-em hun-well, in Yuzh. C-bi-ri pro-continued the development of local traditions [in Tu-ve - the Shum-rak culture, in Ha-ka-sii - te-sing type (or stage) and tash-tyk-kul-tu-ra, etc.]. Et-nich. and vo-en.-li-teich. is-to-riya Center. Asia in Zh. in many respects it is based on the light of the whale. letter. source-to-no-kov. You can-but-track you-movement-one-one or several-volume-e-di-not-ny k-chev-nikov, ras-pro-country-yav -their power on the wide-scale pro-countries-st-va, their disintegration, in-ingestion of the following, etc. (dun-hu, tab-ha- chi, zhu-zha-not, etc.). The complexity of the composition of these ob-e-di-not-niy, the weak exploration of a number of regions of the Center. Asia, labor-no-sti-da-ti-rov-ki, etc. do their co-delivery with ar-heo-logic. pa-mint-ni-ka-ka-ka very gi-po-te-te-tich-mi.

The next epo-ha is-to-rii step-pei of Asia and Ev-ro-py is connected with do-mi-ni-ro-va-ni-em no-si-te-lei Türk -skih languages, ob-ra-zo-va-ni-em Türk-ka-ga-na-ta, having replaced his other middle-century. in-en.-in-li-tich. ob-e-di-not-niy and go-su-darstv.

Culture-tu-ry settled-lo-go on-se-le-niya le-so-ste-pi Vost. Euro-ro-py, Ura-la, Si-bi-ri not-rarely-to-di-li in "ski-fo-si-bir-sky", "sar-mat-sky", "Hunn-sky "" Worlds ", but could-make-up cultural communities with forest-ny ple-me-na-mi or ob-ra-zo-you-va-whether own. cultural regions.

In the forest zone of Top-not-go Po-ne-ma-nya and Pod-vi-nya, Po-dnie-ro-vya and Po-eyes of the tradition of bron-zo-vo-go ve -ka pro-long-zha-la shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki culture, on os-no-ve pre-im. local cultures were formed by the Dnieper-ro-Dvina culture, the Dyakovsky culture. On early-on, this-groin of their development of the same-le-zo ho-cha and there were-lo-ra-pro-stra-not-but, but did not become-lo-mined raw materials -eat; pa-mint-ni-ki of this-go kru-ga ar-heo-logi on the basis of mass-on-the-go-kam kos-ty-nyh from-de-li on the basis. ob-ek-tah ras-co-pok - go-ro-di-shchah ha-rak-te-ri-zo-va-whether as "kos-te-nosed go-ro-di-shcha." Mas-so-oe-use-use-zo-va-za-le-za here na-chi-na-et-Xia approx. end 1st millennium BC e., when they go from-me-not-nia and in other regions of culture, from-me-cha-yut-Xia mi-gras-tions. In this way, for example, in relation to the culture of shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki and the dyakov-iss-slse-do-va-te- whether you-de-la-yut are just different images of co-with-vet-st-yuyu "early" and "late-nyuyu" culture.

According to the pro-is-ho-zh-de-niyu and about-li-ku early dyakov-kul-tu-re is close to pri-we-kav-shaya with vos-to-ka go-ro -dets-kaya culture. To ru-be-zhu er, pro-out-goes-dit is a super-wide-spread-expansion of its area to the south and north, to the ta-hedgehog districts in-re-whose Wet-lu-gi. About-lo ru-be-zha er in her area-al pro-move-ha-et-sya on-se-le-nie because of the Vol-gi; from Su-ry to rya-zan-go Po-ochya for-mi-ru-yut-sya cultural groups associated with tra-di-chi-she An-d- re-ev-sko-go chicken-g-na. On their basis lay the culture of the late Zh. century, associated with the no-si-te-la-mi of the Fin-no-Volga languages -kov.

South zone of forest-no-dnie-ro-vya za-ni-ma-li mi-lo-grad-kul-tu-ra and yukh-nov-kul-tu-ra, in which one can trace it means it. the influence of the Scythian culture and La-te-na. Several waves of mi-gras from the Vis-lo-Oder-region-gion when-ve-whether to the appearance on the sky culture-tour, for-mi-ro-va-niyu on b. including the south of the forest-no-go and le-so-step-no-go Po-dnie-ro-v'ya beyond-ru-bi-netz-koi culture. Her, along with ok-ksyv-skaya, pshe-vors-skaya, sing-nesh-ti-lu-ka-shev-kul-tu-roy, you-de-la-yut in a circle “la -te-ni-zi-ro-van-nyh ", from-me-tea the special influence of the culture of La-ten. In the 1st century. n. NS. for-ru-bi-nets-kaya culture-tu-ra pe-re-zhi-la ras-pad, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of more sowing. na-se-le-nia, for-mi-ru-yut-Xia pa-mint-ni-ki late-not-z-ru-bi-nets-to-go-ri-zon-ta, easy in os-no-vu ki-ev -skoy culture, op-re-de-lav-shey cultural ob-face of forest-no-go and partly le-so-step-no -th Po-dnie-ro-v'ya in 3-4 centuries. n. NS. On the os-no-ve-volyn-skikh pa-mints-nikovs of the pshe-vor-kul-tu-ry in the 1st century. n. NS. for-mi-ru-em-sya tooth-rets-kaya culture. With culture-tu-ra-mi, vos-nyav-shi-mi com-in-en-you in a naval culture, pre-w-de everything in the so-called. za-ru-bi-nets-koy line, is-sle-do-va-te-li bind-zy-va-yut for-mi-ro-va-slavyan.

All R. 3 c. n. NS. from the Lower Danube to the Se-ver-go Don-ts, there was a cher-nya-hov culture, in which a significant role was played la vel-bar culture, races-propagation-not-so-to-swarm to the southeast-current is connected with the migration of go-tos and ge -pi-dov. The collapse of societies. structures, correlated with the Cher-nya-khov-culture-swarm, under the blows of the Huns in the con. 4 c. n. NS. signified the beginning of the new epoch in the history of Ev-ro-py - Ve-li-ko-go pe-re-se-le-niya na-ro-dov.

On se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke Ev-ro-py na-cha-lo Zh. In. connected with the Anan-in-kul-tu-r-no-historian. area. In the territory-ri-to-rii north-west. Russia and parts of Finland are races-pro-countries-not-us-culture, in which kom-na-nen-you are Anan-in and tech-style nooy ke-ra-mi-ki culture-tur-pe-re-ple-ta-yut-sya with me-st-me (luu-kon-sa-ri-ku-do-ma, late kar- go-polish culture, late-not-white-sea, etc.). In the bass-sei-nah of the rivers Pe-cho-ry, you-che-gdy, Me-ze-no, North. The dvins appear-la-eut-sya pa-mint-ni-ki, in ke-ra-mi-ke some-ryh pro-long-za-los development of gre-ben-cha -th or-na-ment-tal-noy tradition associated with the Le-Byazh-culture-swarm, while the new ornamental mo-ty you testify to the interaction with the Kama-ski and the trans-Ural groups in

By the 3rd century. BC NS. on the os-no-ve of the Anan-in-sklade-dy-va-yut-sya common-no-sti of the drunk-no-bor-culture and gla-de-nov-culture (see . Look-but-in). The upper bounds of culture-round drunk-no-bor-sko-go krug a number of issle-do-va-te-lei count-ta-yut ser. 1st millennium AD e., other you-de-la-yut for 3-5 centuries. ma-zu-nin-kul-tu-ru, aze-lin-kul-tu-ru, etc. A new stage is-to-rich. development is associated with a number of mi-gras-tions, including in leading-shikh to the form-mi-ro-va-niyu Wed-century. culture-tour associated with no-si-te-la-mi sovr. Permian languages.

In the mountain-forest and ta-hedgehog regions of the Ural and Zap. C-bi-ri in early J. in. were-whether ras-pro-countries-not-us cross-stowed ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra, it-kul-kul-kul-tu-ra, gre-ben-cha-to-yamoch -noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra zapad-no-si-bir-sko-go kru-ga, Ust-po-lui-kul-tu-ra, ku-lai kul -to-ra, be-lo-yar-sky, but-in-che-kin-sky, bo-go-chanov-sky, etc .; in the 4th century. BC NS. here, the orient-en-ta-tion was stored on the colored metal-lo-ob-work-bot-ku (with the it-kul culture, the center is connected, provided -washed many districts, including steppe ones, raw materials and from-de-lia-mi from copper), in some culture of races -propagation of black metal-lur-gia from-but-sit-Xia to the 3rd third of the 1st millennium BC. NS. This cultural circle is connected with the ancestors of the no-si-te-lei part of the present. Ugric languages ​​and Samo-diy languages.

South-neo-ho-di-las the region of forest-steppe cultures Zap. C-bi-ri, sowing. peri-ferii of the world of ko-chev-nikov, connection-zy-vae-may with the south. vet-vyu ug-ditch (vorob-yev-skaya and no-si-lov-sko-bai-tovskaya culture; their replacement is the Sar-gat culture , go-ro-hov-sky culture). In the forest-step-nom Pri-Ob'e in the 2nd half. 1st millennium BC NS. ras-about-countries-no-fox-ki-zhi-rov-skaya, old-ro-alei-skaya, ka-men-skaya cultures, some of which sometimes ob-e-di- nya-yut in one community. Part of the le-so-step-no-go-se-lening was-la-vle-che-na in the migration of ser. 1st millennium AD e., the other part, according to Ir-ty-shu, moved to the north (pot-che-your-culture). Along the Ob to the south, right up to Al-tai, there was a propagation of the Ku-lai culture (upper-not-ob-culture). The rest of the neck, connected with the tradition of the Sar-gat and Kamensk culture, in the epoch of the Middle -ve-ko-vya was-lo tur-ki-zi-ro-va-no.

In the forest cultures of the East. Si-bi-ri (late yymy-yakh-takh-kul-tu-ra, pya-sin-skaya, tse-pan-skaya, Ust-mil-skaya, etc.) from de-lia from bron -zy not-many-num-ny, pre-im. im-tailors, processing-bot-ka-iron in-yav-la-et-sya not earlier con. 1st millennium BC NS. from Pri-amur-rya and Pri-seas-rya. These cultures are-tav-le-ny under-viz-ny groups-pa-mi hunters and fish-bo-lo-vov - fore-kov yuka-gir, sowing. parts of tun-gu-so-man-chzhur-skikh na-ro-dov, chuk-chy, kor-ryakov, etc.

Eastern regions of Asia. I grew up in culture. Dal-no-go Vos-to-ka, se-ve-ro-vos-to-ka Ki-tai and Ko-rei, the bron-zo-vy century is not as bright as in Si bi-ri or more south. rayonakh, but already on the ru-be-the same 2-1-st millennium BC. NS. here began the development of the ze-le-za within the framework of the Uril culture and the Yankov culture, and then replaced them ta-la-kan-sk, ol-gin, pol-tsev-culture and other cultures close to them from the territory of Ki-tai (wan-yan- he, gun-tu-ling, feng-ling) and Ko-rei. Some of these cultures are connected with the ancestors of the south. parts of tun-gu-so-man-chzhur-skikh na-ro-dov. More sowing. pa-myat-ni-ki (lakh-tinskaya, Okhotsk, Ust-Bel-skaya and other cultures) are yakh-takh-culture-tu-ry, which-rye in the middle. 1st millennium BC NS. do-t-ha-yut Chu-cat-ki and, vzaim-mo-dei-st-vuya with pa-leo-es-ki-mo-sa-mi, teach-st-vu-yut in the form-mi- ro-va-nii ancient-ne-berin-go-sea culture. About the presence of iron incisors, wit-de-tel-st-vu-yut pre-w-de all made with their help in-mouth -n-n-k-n-n-no-ki of bone gar-p-nos.

On the territory of Korea, from-go-to-le-nie weapons from the stone pre-ob-la-da-lo on the pro-ty-ze-nii bron-zo-vo- go ve-ka and na-cha-la Zh. century, from metal-la de-la-li to the main. weapons, not-to-rye types of uk-ra-she-niy, etc. Ras-pro-passion-not-wishing-les-za is from-but-sitat to ser. 1st millennium BC e., when there is a store-dy-va-los-unity-not-nie Cho-son; more late history of these cultures is associated with a whale. for-voy-va-niyami, for-mi-ro-va-ni-em and development of local go-su-darties (Ko-gu-ryo, etc.). On the Japanese islands, the same-le-zo came-to-el and on-to-chi-lo ras-pro-country-not-being in the course of the development of the Yayoi culture, in the framework of a co-swarm in the 2nd century. n. NS. there were tribal unions, and then the state. ob-ra-zo-va-nie Yama. In the South-East. Asia na-cha-lo J. in. comes-hu-dit-Xia on the epo-hu for-mi-ro-va-nia of the first go-su-darties.

Africa. In the middle-di-earth-no-sea-region-las-tyah, it means-chit. part of the bass-sei-na Ni-la, at the Kras-no-th m. st-no-le-nie Zh. v. pro-is-ho-di-lo on the os-no-ve culture-tour of the bron-zo-in-th century, in the framework of tsi-vi-li-zation (Egi-pet Ancient, Me-roe), in connection with the emergence of a colo-ny from Fi-nik-kii, the ras-color of Kar-fa-ge-na; to the end. 1st millennium BC NS. middle-di-earth-no-sea Af-ri-ka became a part of Rome. im-peri.

Oso-ben-no-stu development more south. culture-tour yav-la-e-sya from-day-st-vie bron-zo-in-th century. Pro-nick-no-ve-nie metal-lur-gii zhe-le-za south of Sa-hara part of the is-sl-do-va-te-lei connect-zy-va-yut with influence -n-em Me-roe. More and more ar-gu-men-tos are expressed in favor of other points of view, according to which an important role is played in this game. -rez Sa-haru. So-to-you-mi could-be “do-ro-gi-ko-les-nits”, re-con-st-rui-rue-e-e-e-e-r-e-e-e-e-r-e-e-r-e-e-m-e-e-m-e-g-n-yam , they could pass through Fez-tsan, as well as where the ancient state of Ga-na lay, and so on. cha-ev pro-from-to-le-z could-lo co-wed-up-to-chi-vat in special-cia-li-zir. rai-onah, you can-no-li-zi-ro-vat their zhi-te-la-mi, and kuz-not-tsy - to-ra-zo-vat locks with -general-shch-st-va; communities of different eco-no-mich. specialty-li-zation and level of development of the congregation-st-in-wa-li. All this, as well as weak ar-heo-logic. the study of the con-ti-nen-that de-la-yut our idea of ​​the development of the female here. all-ma-gi-te-tich-ny.

In Zap. Af-ri-ke ancient svi-de-tel-va pro-from-water-st-va iron-from-de-li (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) BC) are connected with the culture-swarm of Nok, its relationship with the syn-chron-ny and more later-no-mi-cult -ra-mi in many ways is not clear, but not later than the 1st floor. 1st millennium AD NS. the same-le-zo was known-but throughout the West. Af-ri-ke. One-on-one, yes, on pa-mint-no-kah, associated with the state. ob-ra-zo-va-nia-mi con. 1st thousand - 1st floor 2nd millennium AD NS. (Ig-bo-Uk-woo, Ife, Be-ning, etc.), from-de-li from the same-le-for not-a-lot, in ko-lo-no-al-ny per-ri- od it was one of the subjects of the introduction.

East. in-without-re-zhye Af-ri-ki to Zh. v. about the culture of Aza-nia, and in their relation there is information about them-the-same-le-za. An important stage in the history of the region of app. Asia, pre-w-de all-go mu-sul-man (such as Kil-va, Mo-ga-di-sho, etc.); centers for pro-of-water-st-wu same-les-known for this time by letters. and ar-heo-log-gich. source-to-no-kam.

In the bass-this-not Kon-go, int. rai-onakh Vost. Af-ri-ki and the south races-pro-pass-not-ness of-le-zy-zy-va-yut with culture-tu-ra-mi, when-over-le-zha-shi-mi the tradition of "ke-ra-mi-ki with a curved bottom" ("a hole at the bottom", etc.) and the traditions close to her. Na-cha-lo metal-lur-gii in dep. places of these regions from-but-sit to different from-cut-kam 1st floor. (not later than se-re-di-us) 1st millennium AD NS. Mi-gran-you from these lands-stranded, ve-ro-yat-but, for the first time brought the same-le-zo and to Yuzh. Af-ri-ku. A number of emerging-kav-shikh "im-periy" in the bas-sei not of the rivers Zam-bezi, Kon-go (Zim-bab-ve, Ki-ta-ra, etc.) were us with ex-port-tom gold-lo-that, layered bone, etc.

A new stage in the history of Af-ri-ki south of Sa-ha-ry is associated with the appearance of eu-rop. ko-lo-niy.

Additional literature:

Mon-gayt A.L. M., 1973-1974. Book. 1-2;

Coghlan H. H. Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Oxf. 1977;

Waldbaum J. C. From bronse to iron. Gött. 1978;

The coming of the age of iron. New Haven; L., 1980;

Iron Age Af-ri-ki. M., 1982;

Ar-heo-logic of Trans-ru-bez-noy Asia. M., 1986;

Step-pi of the European part of the USSR in ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1989;

Tylecote R. F. A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. L., 1992;

Step-naya po-sa azi-at-sky part of the USSR in ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1992;

Shchu-kin M.B. On the ru-be-same era. SPb., 1994;

Essays on the history of the ancient same-le-zo-ob-work-ki in the Eastern Ev-ro-pe. M., 1997;

Collis J. The European Iron Age. 2nd ed. L., 1998;

Yal-çin Ü. Early iron metallurgy in Ana-tolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999. Vol. 49;

Kan-to-rovich A.R., Kuz-mi-nykh S.V. Early iron age // BRE. M., 2004. T .: Russia; Tro-itz-kaya T.N., Novikov A.V. No-vo-sib., 2004.

Illustrations:

Iron knives from the heating near Mount Olympus. 11-8 centuries. BC NS. Ar-heo-lo-g-ch-mu-ze (Di-on, Greece). BDT Archive;

BDT Archive;

BDT Archive;

A sword in a sheath with an anthropomorphic hilt. Same-le-zo, bronze. Laten culture (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Met-ro-po-le-ten-mu-zey (New York). BDT Archive;

Pa-rad-ny battle-howl then from chickens-ga-na Ke-ler-mes-1 (Ku-ban). Zhe-le-zo, zo-lo-something. Con. 7 - early. 6th century BC NS. Er-mi-tazh (S.-Pe-ter-burg). BDT Archive;

Iron-on-end-nick-stre-ly, in-cru-sti-ro-van-ny gold-lo-tom and se-rebr-rum, from hens-g-na Ar-zhan-2 (Tuva). 7 c. BC NS. Er-mi-tazh (S.-Pe-ter-burg). BDT Archive;

Iron-nye from-de-lia from mo-gil-nik Bar-sov-sky III (Sur-gut-obye). 6-2 / 1 centuries. BC NS. (according to V.A. Bor-zu-no-wu, Yu. P. Che-mea-ki-nu). BDT Archive.

THE IRON AGE - an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The idea of ​​three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Carus). The term "Iron Age" was coined around the middle of the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Thomsen. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of the Iron Age monuments in Western Europe were carried out by M. Görnes, O. Montelius, O. Tischler, M. Reinecke, J. Deschelet, N. Oberg, J. L. Peach and J. Kostrzewski; in Vost. Europe - V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gauthier, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, H. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia - S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others.

The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, however, only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China) usually belong to the Iron Age. The Iron Age is very short in comparison with the previous archaeological eras (Stone and Bronze Ages). Its chronological boundaries: from 9-7 centuries BC. BC, when many of the primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when these tribes developed a class society and state. Some modern foreign scientists, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of the Iron Age Western Europe by the 1st century BC e., when there are Roman written sources containing information about Western European tribes. Since to this day iron remains the most important material from which tools are made, the modern era enters the Iron Age, therefore, the term "early Iron Age" is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, only its beginning is called the Early Iron Age (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Despite the fact that iron is the most widespread metal in the world, it was later mastered by man, since it almost does not occur in nature in its pure form, it is difficult to process and its ores are difficult to distinguish from various minerals. Initially, meteorite iron became known to mankind. Small iron objects (mainly jewelry) are found in the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. NS. in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. NS. According to one of the most probable assumptions, the raw-blown process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites who lived in the mountains of Armenia (Antitavra) in the 15th century BC. NS. However, for a long time, iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century BC. NS. a fairly widespread manufacture of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and India. At the same time, iron became famous in the south of Europe. In the 11-10th centuries BC. NS. some iron objects penetrate into the region lying to the North of the Alps, are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the USSR, but iron tools begin to dominate in these areas only in the 8-7 centuries BC. NS. In the 8th century BC. NS. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran, and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news of iron in China dates back to the 8th century BC. e., but it spreads only in the 5th century BC. NS. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron spread around the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times, iron metallurgy was known to various tribes in Africa. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century BC. NS. iron was made in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century BC. NS. the Iron Age began in the central region of Africa. Some African tribes passed from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia and most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, iron (except for meteorite) became known only in the 2nd millennium AD. NS. together with the appearance of Europeans in these areas.

In contrast to the relatively rare sources of extraction of copper and especially tin, iron ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ore, lacustrine, marsh, meadow, etc.), are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The melting of iron, that is, obtaining it in a liquid state, has always been inaccessible for the ancient metallurgists, since this requires a very high temperature (1528 °). Iron was obtained in a dough-like state using a raw-blown process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore with carbon at a temperature of 1100-1350 ° in special furnaces with air blowing with bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a crumb formed - a lump of porous doughy iron weighing 1-8 kg, which had to be hammered repeatedly with a hammer to compact and partially remove (squeeze out) slag from it. Crude iron is soft, but even in ancient times (around the 12th century BC), a method was discovered for quenching iron products (by immersing them in cold water) and carburizing them (carburizing). Bars of iron, ready for forging and intended for trade exchange, usually had a bipyramidal shape in Western Asia and Western Europe. The higher mechanical properties of iron, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal ensured the displacement of bronze by iron, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the manufacture of tools in the Bronze Age. This did not happen immediately. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. NS. iron began to play a really significant role as a material for making tools. The technical upheaval caused by the proliferation of iron greatly expanded the power of man over nature. It made it possible to clear large forest areas for sowing, to expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities, and to improve land cultivation in general. The development of handicrafts, especially blacksmiths and weapons, is accelerating. The processing of wood for the purposes of house building, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils is being improved. Craftsmen, from shoemakers and bricklayers to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except for screws and hinged scissors) used in the Middle Ages, and partially in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads became easier, military equipment improved, exchange expanded, and metal coins became a medium of circulation.

The development of the productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of all social life. As a result of the growth of productive labor, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of the exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal system. One of the sources of the accumulation of values ​​and the growth of inequality in property was the expansion of exchange during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars of plunder and enslavement. The beginning of the Iron Age was characterized by widespread fortifications. In the era of the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through a stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of a class society and state. The transition of part of the means of production to the private property of the dominant minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already typical features of early class societies. For many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took political form so-called military democracy.

A. L. Mongait. Moscow.

Soviet Historical Encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 5. DVINSK - INDONESIA. 1964.

Literature:

Engels F., The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, M., 1953; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; The World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; M. Gernes, Culture of the Prehistoric Past, trans. from it., h. 3, M., 1914; Gorodtsov V. A., Household archeology, M., 1910; Gautier Yu. V., The Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M.-L., 1930; Grakov BN, The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the territory of the USSR, "CA", 1958, No 4; Jessen A.A., To the question of the monuments of the 8th - 7th centuries. BC NS. in the South of the European part of the USSR, in collection: "CA" (t.) 18, M., 1953; Kiselev S. V., Ancient history of Yu. Siberia, (2nd ed.), M., 1951; Clarke D.G.D., Prehistoric Europe. Economical sketch, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history North Caucasus, M., 1960; Lyapushkin I.I., Monuments of the Saltovo-Mayatskaya culture in the basin of the r. Don, "MIA", 1958, No 62; his, the Dnieper forest-steppe left bank in the Iron Age, "MIA", 1961, No. 104; Mongayt A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Okladnikov A.P., Distant past of Primorye, Vladivostok, 1959; Essays on the history of the USSR. Primitive communal system and the most ancient states on the territory of the USSR, M., 1956; Monuments of Zarubinets culture, "MIA", 1959, No 70; Piotrovsky B.V., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 millennium BC e., L., 1949; his, Van kingdom, M., 1959; Rudenko S.I., Culture of the population of Central Altai in the Scythian time, M.-L., 1960; Smirnov A.P., The Iron Age of the Chuvash Volga region, M., 1961; Tretyakov P. N., East Slavic tribes, 2nd ed., M., 1953; Chernetsov V.N., Lower Ob region in 1 millennium AD e., "MIA", 1957, No 58; Déchelette J., Manuel d "archéologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, 2nd ed., T. 3-4, P., 1927; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Düsseldorf, 1953; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., (t.) 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Redlich A., Die Minerale im Dienste der Menschheit, Bd 3 - Das Eisen, Prag, 1925; Rickard TA, Man and metals, v. 1-2, NY-L., 1932.

The Iron Age is a historical and cultural period in the development of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. The Iron Age succeeded the Bronze Age at the beginning of the first millennium BC; the use of iron stimulated the development of production and accelerated social development... All countries of the world passed the period of mastering the production of iron at different times and in a broad sense, the entire history of mankind can be attributed to the Iron Age from the end of the Bronze Age to the present day. But in historical science, only the cultures of primitive peoples that lived outside the territories of ancient states that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age (Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, India, China) are referred to the Iron Age. In the Iron Age, the majority of the peoples of Eurasia experienced the decomposition of the primitive system and the formation of a class society.

The concept of three eras of human development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age) originated in the ancient world. This conjecture was expressed by Titus Lucretius Kar. Scientifically, the term "Iron Age" was based on archaeological material in the middle of the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist K.Yu. Thomsen. The Iron Age, compared to the Stone Age and Copper Age, takes a relatively short time. Its beginning dates back to the 9-7 centuries BC. NS. Traditionally, the end of the Iron Age in Western Europe was associated with the first century BC, when the first detailed written sources about barbarian tribes appeared. In general, for some countries, the end of the Iron Age can be associated with the formation of the state and the emergence of their own written sources.

Iron metallurgy

Unlike relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores are found almost everywhere on Earth, but usually in the form of low-grade brown iron ores. The process of extracting iron from ore is much more complicated than the process of extracting copper. Iron melting occurs at high temperatures that were inaccessible to ancient metallurgists. They obtained iron in a dough-like state using a raw-blown process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350 ° C in special furnaces - forges with air blowing by forging bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a crumb formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged to compact, as well as remove slag from it. Raw iron is a soft metal, tools and weapons made from it were of little practical use in Everyday life... But in the 9-7 centuries BC. Beat the discovery of methods of obtaining steel from iron and its heat treatment. High mechanical properties steel products, the general availability of iron ores was ensured by the displacement of bronze and stone by iron, which were previously the main materials for the production of tools and weapons.
The spread of iron tools greatly expanded human capabilities, it became possible to clear forest areas for sowing, expand irrigation and reclamation structures, and improve land cultivation. The development of crafts has accelerated, wood processing has improved during construction, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots), and the manufacture of utensils. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except for screws and hinged scissors), which were later used both in the Middle Ages and in modern times, had come into use.
The development of the productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of social life. The growth of labor productivity served as an economic prerequisite for the collapse of the tribal primitive system, the emergence of the state. For many tribes of the Iron Age, the social structure took the form of military democracy. One of the sources of the accumulation of values ​​and the growth of wealth inequality was the expansion during the Iron Age trade links... The possibility of enrichment through plunder gave rise to wars, in response to the threat of military raids by neighbors at the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications were built around the settlements around the settlements.

Distribution of iron products in the world

Initially, only meteoric iron was known to people. Iron objects, mainly ornaments, dating back to the first half of the third millennium BC. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor. However, the method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the second millennium BC. It is believed that the raw-blown metallurgical process was first found by tribes living in the Antitavr mountains in Asia Minor in the 15th century BC. From the end of the second millennium BC. iron is known in Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground). The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times.
For a long time, iron was not widely used and was highly valued. It became more widely used after the 11th century BC. in the Near and Middle East, India, southern Europe. In the 10th century BC. iron tools and weapons penetrate north of the Alps and Danube, into the steppe zone of Eastern Europe, but begin to prevail in these areas only from the 8th-7th centuries BC. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age are known, which flourished in the early Iron Age: Central Transcaucasian culture, Kyzyl-Vank culture, Colchis culture, Urartian culture. The appearance of iron products in agricultural oases and steppe regions of Central Asia is attributed to the 7-6 centuries BC. Throughout the first millennium BC. and until the first half of the first millennium A.D. The steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by the Sako-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the first millennium BC. In agricultural oases, the appearance of iron coincides with the appearance of the first state entities(Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm).
In China, iron appeared in the 8th century BC. e., and widely spread from the 5th century BC. NS. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron began to prevail only at the turn of our era. In the African countries neighboring Egypt (Nubia, Sudan, Libya), iron metallurgy has been known since the 6th century BC. In the second century BC. the Iron Age began in Central Africa, a number of African peoples passed from the Stone Age to the metallurgy of iron, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia, Oceania, iron became known in the 16-17 centuries A.D. with the advent of European colonialists.
In Europe, iron and steel as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons began to play a leading role in the second half of the first millennium BC. The Iron Age in Western Europe is divided into two periods according to the names of archaeological cultures - Hallstatt and Laten. The Hallstatt period (900-400 BC) is also called the Early Iron Age (the first iron wreath), and the La Tene period (400 BC - early AD) is called the Revital Iron Age (the second Iron Age ). Hallstatt culture was spread from the Rhine to the Danube, was created in the western part by the Celts, and in the east - by the Illyrians. The Hallstatt period also includes cultures close to the Hallstatt culture - the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula; Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic tribes on the Apennine Peninsula; Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitanians in the Iberian Peninsula; late Lusatian culture in the basins of the Odra and Vistula rivers. The beginning of the Hallstatt period was characterized by the parallel circulation of bronze and iron tools and weapons, the gradual displacement of bronze. In economic terms, the Hallstatt period was characterized by the growth of agriculture, in social terms, by the disintegration of clan relations. The Bronze Age existed in the north of Europe at this time.
From the beginning of the 5th century on the territory of Gaul, Germany, in the countries along the Danube and to the north of it, the La Tene culture, characterized by a high level of iron production, spread. The La Tene culture existed before the Roman conquest of Gaul in the first century BC. La Tene culture is associated with the Celtic tribes, who had large fortified cities, which were the centers of tribes and places of concentration of crafts. In this era, bronze tools and weapons were no longer found among the Celts. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tene culture was replaced by the provincial Roman culture. In the north of Europe, iron spread almost three hundred years later than in the south. The culture of the Germanic tribes inhabiting the territory between the North Sea and the rivers Rhine, Danube, Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula belongs to the end of the Iron Age, and archaeological cultures, whose carriers are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, iron tools and weapons began to prevail at the beginning of our era.

The Iron Age on the territory of Russia and neighboring countries

The spread of iron metallurgy in Eastern Europe dates back to the first millennium BC. Most developed culture The early Iron Age was created by the Scythians who lived in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region (7th century BC - first centuries AD). Iron products were found in abundance in settlements and in barrows of the Scythian time. Signs of metallurgical production were found during excavations of Scythian settlements. The largest amount of remains of iron-making and blacksmiths was found at the Kamenskoye settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol. Iron tools contributed to the development of crafts and the spread of arable farming.
The Scythians were replaced by the Sarmatians, who previously lived in the steppes between the Don and the Volga. The Sarmatian culture, also dating back to the early Iron Age, dominated the Black Sea region in the 2-4 centuries AD. At the same time, in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper regions, and Transnistria, there were cultures of “burial fields” (Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture) of agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron; probably the ancestors of the Slavs. In the central and northern forest regions of Eastern Europe, iron metallurgy appeared in the 6-5th centuries BC. In the Kama region, the Ananyin culture was widespread (8-3 centuries BC), which is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools. The Ananyin culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pianobor culture (the end of the first millennium BC - the first half of the first millennium AD).
The Iron Age of the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve is represented by the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (the middle of the first millennium BC - the middle of the first millennium AD). To the south of the middle reaches of the Oka, west of the Volga, in the basins of the Tsna and Moksha rivers, the ancient settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC - 5th century AD) belong to the Iron Age. The Dyakovo and Gorodets cultures are associated with the Finno-Ugric tribes. Settlements of the Upper Dnieper and the southeastern Baltic region of the 6th century BC - 7th century A.D. belong to the East Baltic tribes, later assimilated by the Slavs, as well as the Chud tribes. Southern Siberia and Altai are rich in copper and tin, which led to a high level of development of bronze metallurgy. Bronze culture long time here it competed with iron tools and weapons, which became widespread in the middle of the first millennium BC. - Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk kurgans in Altai.

The Iron Age is a period in the history of mankind characterized by the spread of the processing and smelting of iron, the manufacture of tools and weapons from iron. The Iron Age succeeded the Bronze Age at the beginning of the first millennium BC.

The concept of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron dates back to ancient times. This is well described by Titus Lucretius Cara in his philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", in which the progress of mankind is seen in the development of metallurgy. The term Iron Age was coined in the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist K.Yu. Thomsen.

Although iron is the most widespread metal, it was later mastered by mankind, due to the fact that in nature in its pure form it is difficult to distinguish iron from other minerals, in addition, iron has a higher melting point than bronze. Before the discovery of methods for producing steel from iron and its heat treatment, iron was inferior in strength and anti-corrosion qualities to bronze.

Initially, iron was used to make jewelry and was smelted from meteorites. The first iron products were found in Egypt and northern Iraq, they were dated to the third millennium BC. According to one of the most probable hypotheses, the smelting of iron from ores was discovered by the Khalib tribe living in Asia Minor in the 15th century BC. However, iron for a very long time remained a very valuable and rare metal.

The rapid spread of iron and the displacement of bronze and stone by it as a material for the production of tools was facilitated by: first, the widespread use of iron in nature and its lower cost compared to bronze; secondly, the discovery of methods of obtaining steel made iron tools of higher quality than bronze ones.

The Iron Age came to regions of the world at different times. Initially in the 12-11th centuries BC, iron production spread to Asia Minor, the Middle East, Mesopotamia, Iran, the Caucasus and India. In the 9-7 centuries BC, the production of iron tools spread among the primitive tribes of Europe, starting from the 8-7 century BC. the production of iron tools extends to the European part of Russia. In China and the Far East, the Iron Age begins in the 8th century BC. In Egypt and North Africa, the production of iron tools spreads in the 7-6 centuries BC.

In the 2nd century. BC NS. The Iron Age came to the tribes inhabiting Central Africa... Some primitive tribes of Central and South Africa passed from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. America, Australia, New Zealand and Oceania saw iron (except for meteorite) only in the 16-17 centuries AD, when representatives of European civilization appeared in these areas.

The spread of iron tools of labor led to a technical revolution in human society. The power of man in his struggle with the elements increased, the influence of people on nature increased, the introduction of iron tools made the labor of farmers easier, it became possible to clear large forest areas for fields, contributed to the improvement of irrigation facilities and, in general, improved the technology of land cultivation. The technology of wood and stone processing is being improved for the purpose of building houses, defensive structures and vehicles (ships, chariots, carts, etc.). Military affairs have improved. Craftsmen received more advanced tools of labor, which contributed to the improvement and acceleration of the development of crafts. Trade relations expanded, the decomposition of the primitive communal system accelerated, which contributed to the acceleration of the transition to a class - slave-owning society.

Due to the fact that iron is still an important material in the production of tools, the modern period of history is included in the Iron Age.

iron age

period in the development of mankind, which began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Changed the Bronze Age mainly at the beginning. 1st millennium BC NS. The use of iron gave a powerful stimulus to the development of production and accelerated social development. In the Iron Age, the majority of the peoples of Eurasia experienced the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the transition to a class society.

Iron age

an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The concept of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - originated in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Carus). The term "J. v." was introduced to science around the middle of the 19th century. by the Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Thomsen. The most important research, the initial classification and dating of the monuments of the Zh. Century. in Western Europe they were made by the Austrian scientist M. Görnes, the Swedish scientist O. Montelius and O. Oberg, the German one O. Tischler and P. Reinecke, the French J. Deschelet, the Czech one I. Peach, and the Polish one J. Kostshevsky; in Eastern Europe by the Russian and Soviet scientists V.A.Gorodtsov, A.A. Spitsyn, Yu.V. Gauthier, P.N. Tretyakov, A.P. Smirnov, Kh.A. Moora, M.I. BN Grakov and others; in Siberia - S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko, and others; in the Caucasus, by B. A. Kuftin, A. A. Jessen, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov, and others; in Central Asia - S.P. Tolstov, A.N.Bernshtam, A.I. Terenozhkin, and others.

The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, but by the Zh. Century. usually only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of the ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc.) are considered. Zh. In. in comparison with previous archaeological eras (Stone and Bronze Ages) is very short. Its chronological boundaries: from the 9th to 7th centuries. BC BC, when many of the primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when these tribes developed a class society and state. Some modern foreign scholars, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of life to the era. Western Europe to the 1st century. BC e., when there are Roman written sources containing information about Western European tribes. Since to this day iron remains the most important metal, from the alloys of which tools of labor are made, the term "early life style" is also used for archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, the early Zh. Century. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Initially, meteorite iron became known to mankind. Individual items iron (mainly decoration) 1st half of 3rd millennium BC NS. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. NS. According to one of the most probable assumptions, the raw-blown process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites who lived in the mountains of Armenia (Antitavr) in the 15th century. BC NS. However, for a long time, iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century. BC NS. a fairly widespread manufacture of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and India. At the same time, iron became famous in the south of Europe. In the 11th and 10th centuries. BC NS. Some iron objects penetrate into the region north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of the southern European part of the present-day USSR, but iron tools began to prevail in these regions only from the 8th to 7th centuries. BC NS. In the 8th century. BC NS. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran, and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news of iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spreads only from the 5th century. BC NS. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron predominates at the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times, iron metallurgy was known to various tribes in Africa. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century. BC NS. iron was made in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century. BC NS. Zh. In. came in the central region of Africa. Some African tribes passed from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia, and on most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, iron (except for meteorite) became known only in the 16th and 17th centuries. n. NS. with the advent of Europeans in these areas.

In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ores) are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. Iron smelting was inaccessible for the ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a dough-like state using a raw-blown process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350╟С in special furnaces - forges with air blowing with bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a lump was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1 ~ 5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as for removing slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had poor mechanical qualities. Only with the opening in the 9th-7th centuries. BC NS. Methods of making steel from iron and its heat treatment, the widespread dissemination of the new material begins. The higher mechanical properties of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze by them, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. This did not happen immediately. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. NS. iron and steel began to play a really significant role as materials for the manufacture of tools and weapons. The technical revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded the power of man over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for sowing, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities, and improve land cultivation in general. The development of handicrafts, especially blacksmiths and weapons, is accelerating. The processing of wood for the purposes of house building, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils is being improved. Craftsmen, from shoemakers and bricklayers to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural. hand tools (except for screws and hinged scissors), used in the Middle Ages, and partially in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads became easier, military equipment improved, exchange expanded, and metal coins became a medium of circulation.

The development of the productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of all social life. As a result of the growth in labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal primitive communal system. One of the sources of the accumulation of values ​​and the growth of property inequality was the expanding economy in the era of the Zh. Century. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars with the aim of plunder and enslavement. At the beginning of the Zh. Century. fortifications are widespread. In the era of Zh. Century. the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through a stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of a class society and state. The transfer of some means of production to the private ownership of the dominant minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already typical features of early class societies. For many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took the political form of the so-called. military democracy.

Zh. In. on the territory of the USSR. On the modern territory of the USSR, iron first appeared at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. NS. in Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground) and in the south of the European part of the USSR. The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinoiks and Khalibs who lived in the neighborhood of the Kolkhs were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy in the USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. NS. A number of archaeological cultures of the end of the Bronze Age are known in the Transcaucasus, the flowering of which dates back to the early life: the Central Transcaucasian culture with local foci in Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, the Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank), the Colchian culture, Urartian culture (see Urartu). In the North Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and Kuban culture. In the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC NS. ≈ the first centuries A.D. NS. Inhabited by tribes of the Scythians, who created the most developed culture of the early Zh. century. on the territory of the USSR. Iron products are found in abundance in settlements and in barrows of the Scythian time. Signs of metallurgical production were found during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest amount of remains of iron-making and blacksmiths was found at the Kamensk settlement (5th-3rd centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia (see Scythians). Iron tools contributed to the widespread development of all kinds of crafts and the spread of arable farming among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The period following the Scythian period of the early Zh. Century. in the steppes of the Black Sea region is represented by the Sarmatian culture (see Sarmatians), which prevailed here from the 2nd century. BC NS. up to 4 c. n. NS. In the preceding time, from the 7th century. BC NS. Sarmatians (or Savromats) lived between the Don and the Urals. In the first centuries A.D. NS. one of the Sarmatian tribes - the Alans - began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, the culture of “burial fields” (Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture, etc.) that spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper regions and Transnistria. These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. The tribes inhabiting the central and northern forest regions of the European part of the USSR were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th to 5th centuries. BC NS. In the 8th and 3rd centuries. BC NS. In the Kama region, the Ananyin culture was widespread, which is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the latter's undoubted superiority at the end. The Ananyin culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pianobor culture (end of the 1st millennium BC - the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD).

In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve to the Zh. Century. The settlements of the Dyakovo culture belong to (the middle of the 1st millennium BC - the middle of the 1st millennium AD), and on the territory south of the middle course of the Oka, to the west of the Volga, in the Tsna and Moksha are ancient settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC ~ 5th century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno - Ugric tribes. Numerous settlements of the 6th century are known in the Upper Dnieper region. BC NS. ≈ 7 in. n. e., belonging to the ancient East Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeastern Baltic, where along with them there are remnants of culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Estonian (Chud) tribes.

In southern Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, the bronze industry developed strongly, which for a long time successfully competed with iron. Although iron products apparently appeared already in the early Mayemir period (Altai; 7th century BC), iron was widely spread only in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. NS. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk burial mounds in Altai, etc.). Cultures of Zh. In. are represented in other parts of Siberia and the Far East. On the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th - 7th centuries. BC NS. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products both in agricultural oases and in the pastoral steppe can be attributed to the 7th and 6th centuries. BC NS. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. NS. and in the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. NS. The steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous Sako-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. NS. In agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave states (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm).

Zh. In. on the territory of Western Europe it is usually divided into 2 periods - Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which was also called the early, or first Zh. century, and Laten (400 BC - early AD) , which is called late, or the second. Hallstatt culture was spread on the territory of modern Austria, Yugoslavia, Northern Italy, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and on the territory of modern Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the Celtic tribes lived. The culture close to Hallstatt dates back to this time: the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic, and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula, and the culture of the beginning of the Zh. Century. Of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitanians, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins of the river. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt time was characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. Economically, this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, socially - the disintegration of clan relations. The Bronze Age still existed in the north of the present-day GDR and the FRG, in Scandinavia, Western France, and England. From the beginning of the 5th century. La Tene culture spreads, characterized by a genuine flourishing of the iron industry. The La Tene culture existed before the Roman conquest of Gaul (1st century BC), an area of ​​distribution of the La Tene culture — land west of the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean along the middle Danube and north of it. The La Tene culture is associated with the Celtic tribes, who had large fortified cities, which were the centers of the tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. In this era, the Celts gradually created a class slave-owning society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but iron is most widespread in Europe during the period of the Roman conquests. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tene culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial Roman culture. In northern Europe, iron spread almost 300 years later than in the south. By the end of the Zh. Century. refers to the culture of the Germanic tribes who lived in the area between the North Sea and the river. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures, the carriers of which are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, the complete domination of iron came only at the beginning of our era.

Lit .: Engels F., The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., Vol. 21; Avdusin DA, Archeology of the USSR, [M.], 1967; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, Moscow, 1955-56; Gautier Yu. V., The Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M. ≈ L., 1930; Grakov BN, The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the territory of the USSR, "Soviet archeology", 1958, no. 4; Zagorulsky E. M., Archeology of Belarus, Minsk, 1965; History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day, vol. 1, M., 1966; Kiselev S. V., Ancient history of Southern Siberia, M., 1951; Clarke D.G.D., Prehistoric Europe. Economic essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov EI, Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Mongayt A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Piotrovsky B. B., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 millennium BC. e., L., 1949; Tolstov S. P., On the ancient deltas of the Oks and Yaksart, M., 1962; Shovkoplyas I. G., Archaeological Precepts in Ukraine (1917-1957), K., 1957; Aitchison L., A history of metals, t. 1-2, L., 1960; CLark G., World prehistory, Camb., 1961; Forbes R. J., Studies in ancient technology, v. 8, Leiden, 1964; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Düsseldorf, 1953; Laet S. J. de, La préhistoire de l▓ Europe, P. ≈ Brux., 1967; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Piggott S., Ancient Europe, Edinburgh, 1965; Pleiner R., Staré europské kovářství, Praha, 1962; Tulecote R. F., Metallurgy in archeology, L., 1962.

L. L. Mongait.

Wikipedia

Iron age

Iron Age- an era in the primitive and Saxon-class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the use of iron tools; lasted from about 1200 BC. NS. up to 340 AD NS.

The idea of ​​three centuries (stone, bronze and iron) existed in the ancient world, it is mentioned in the works of Titus Lucretius Kara. However, the term "Iron Age" itself appeared in scientific works in the middle of the 19th century, it was introduced by the Danish archaeologist Christian Jürgensen Thomsen.

All countries went through the period when iron metallurgy began to spread, however, as a rule, only those cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the possessions of the ancient states that were formed during the Neolithic and Bronze Age - Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, are attributed to the Iron Age, India, China.