Linguistic experiment as a means of students' cognitive activity with a differentiated approach to teaching the Russian language. Language game as a linguistic experiment Surface and deep sentence structure
OUR ARCHIVE
A.M. Shakhnarovich
LINGUISTIC EXPERIMENT AS A METHOD OF LINGUISTIC AND PSYCHOLINGUISTIC RESEARCH
The article was first published in the collective monograph "Foundations of the Theory of Speech Activity" (Moscow: Nauka, 1974) - the first generalizing work created by Russian psycholinguists. The author examines various types of scientific experiments in linguistics. Insufficient understanding that any appeal to “linguistic consciousness” is a kind of linguistic experiment leads to underestimation of the place of experiment in the system of methods of “classical” linguistics and, accordingly, underestimation of the place of psycholinguistics in the system of disciplines of modern linguistics.
Key words: experiment, psycholinguistics, method, research
The article was published for the first time in collaborative monograph "The bases of the theory of speech activity" (Moscow, Publishing house "Nauka", 1974) which is the first summarizing work created by Russian psycholinguists. The author describes different kinds of scientific experiments in psycholinguistics. Insufficient understanding that each access to language consciousness is a kind of linguistic experiment leads to underestimation of the place of an experiment in the system of classical linguistics methods and correspondently to underestimation of psycholinguistics "place in the system of modern linguistics disciplines.
Key words: experiment, psycholinguistics, method, research.
The purpose of a scientific experiment is to artificially cause a phenomenon to be studied, so that, observing this phenomenon, we can more deeply and fully cognize it. The experiment should provide opportunities for more detailed observation of the object of study, sometimes under conditions as close as possible to natural. An experiment in the formulation of a scientific theory is not only a method of verification, verification of the constructed model and the basis for its creation, but also allows one to generalize a particular case of research. Experimenting with individual phenomena, the researcher must be aware of each phenomenon as a particular case of the general, the way of existence of the latter.
The experiment is empirical
the basis of scientific theory and, therefore, affects its heuristic value. The foregoing fully applies to a linguistic experiment.
The linguistic experiment is most widely used in two fields of science: linguistics and language teaching (respectively, it is called linguistic and pedagogical).
A linguistic experiment serves as a way of verifying the model built by a linguist. With the help of an experiment, the linguist determines the heuristic value of the model and, ultimately, the epistemological value of the whole theory. We understand the language model (logical model) as “any sufficiently correct, that is, satisfying certain requirements for adequacy, description
language ”[Leontiev 1965, 44].
A pedagogical experiment is carried out to clarify the comparative effectiveness of certain methods and techniques of language teaching. It is carried out under normal conditions of academic work. In addition, a pedagogical experiment can mean "testing in practice some new pedagogical idea - the possibility of its implementation, its effectiveness" [Ramul 1963]. In this case, the pedagogical idea acts as a model for the student's cognition of new material. In this case, an experiment acts as a way to verify the model.
With regard to teaching a language, a pedagogical experiment should help answer the question, "the function of which arguments is the result of our learning" [Leontiev 1969]. The latter presupposes that a psychological experiment should precede a pedagogical experiment.
Empirical (in our context, this is the same as experimental, due to the coincidence of these concepts in the practice of linguistic research) language learning is based on obtaining data on the functioning of the living language system in the individual speech activity of its carrier. What distinguishes such an experiment from an experiment in general is that linguistics deals with the facts, processes, aspects of the language system, but not with their displayed characteristics. In other words, a linguistic experiment always deals with the study of directly displayed properties of phenomena.
The heuristic significance of a linguistic experiment is determined by how correctly it identifies the measure of the adequacy of the language model.
The linguistic experiment has found wide application in the practice of dialectological research. Dialectologists
are faced with the task of modeling the "microsystem" of the language, going from particular cases noted in living speech to the construction of a certain model of this dialect. The model is verified in the situation of a thought experiment, when the linguist identifies himself with the native speaker of the language (dialect). See below for the specifics of a mental linguistic experiment.
There are a number of methods of experimental dialectological research, which it would be more fair to call not methods, but methods of research. As a rule, the dialectologist deals with the native speakers of the dialect and in various ways receives information from them about different aspects of the language1. However, the observations of the dialectologist are very complicated by the fact that they are practically impossible to repeat. Having received some empirical material, having built a model of any dialect, the dialectologist is often deprived of the opportunity to check the absolute correctness of his model. This is explained by the fact that oral speech "is accessible to observation only at the moment of pronunciation, when the act of speech is carried out" [Avanesov 1949, 263]. This, in particular, distinguishes experiments on living languages \u200b\u200bfrom experiments on dead languages.
The main techniques used by dialectologists are conversation and questioning. In the course of a live conversation with speakers of the dialect or in observing their conversation, the researcher receives phonetic and morphological material. When collecting material on vocabulary, a survey can be used. In the course of the survey, the names of a number of household items, etc. are found out. The questions are posed: "What is this?" and "What is it called?" It is not recommended to ask questions like "Do you pronounce it this way?" Such questions, in addition to the fact that they lead to stereotyped answers, and not always correct ones, also create a certain attitude among the speaker of the dialect. From-
1 We do not consider the case when a dialectologist deals with texts (records, folklore).
the negative side of such questions is that they appeal to the "linguistic instinct" of native speakers and the answer contains a subjective assessment that is not taken into account (so the questions themselves are not suitable, but their use and interpretation of answers).
The so-called "field linguistics" is also close to dialectological research in its methods of observation and appointment. In a broad sense, this name unites a set of techniques and methods of working with informants in the study of unwritten languages. It is assumed that as a result of "field" experiments, some model of a living language can be drawn up (see in this connection).
L.V. Shcherba, almost for the first time posing the problem of a linguistic experiment, wrote that a researcher of living languages, "having built some abstract system from the facts of this material," must "check it on new facts, that is, see if the facts of reality. Thus, the principle of experiment is introduced into linguistics ”[Shcherba 1965, 368]. As follows from these words of L.V. Shcherba, the methods of linguistic experiment are closely related to models. When experimenting in dialectological research, a linguist deals, as a rule, with genetic models, and this determines the experimental techniques. In "field linguistics" not only genetic models can be verified, but also axiomatic ones.
L.V. Shcherba distinguishes two types of experiment - a positive experiment and a negative experiment. In a positive experiment, “having made some assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or shaping, etc., one should try whether it is possible to say a number of different phrases (which can be infinitely multiplied ) by applying this rule. An affirmative result will confirm
the correctness of the postulate ... ”[ibid.].
If in a positive experiment a correct form, utterance, etc. is constructed, then in a negative experiment, a knowingly incorrect statement is constructed, and the informant is required to note the incorrectness and make the necessary corrections. A negative experiment in its structure is the same positive one, and between them “there is no fundamental difference and they often complement each other” [Leontiev 1965, 67].
The third type of linguistic experiment was identified by A.A. Leontiev. This is an alternative experiment, during which the informant determines the identity / non-identity of the proposed segments. In this regard, it is important to objectify the data received from the informant as much as possible. To do this, Harris invites the informant to repeat what he has already said, or asks another informant the question "Would you say the same?" ... However, this variant of objectification is not very successful. A more successful option seems to be when the informant is asked a standard question - about the identity or non-identity of the proposed segments of speech, which can be answered unambiguously - "yes" or "no". However, this variant of the experiment directly appeals to the linguistic consciousness of the informant. The most natural would be the data obtained indirectly - in the most natural conditions of a lively casual conversation (filmed by a kind of "hidden camera"). In the course of such a conversation, the exteriorization of the psychologically real elements of the language system occurs, they acquire functional definiteness. In addition, the feedback that is established during communication allows the received data to be objectified by the reaction of the interlocutor. During the conversation, the informant freely operates with syllables, words, sentences - real "quanta" of the flow of speech. The psycholinguistic reality of these "quanta" is always the same (in contrast to the reality in the consciousness of informa-
manta phonemes, morphemes, etc.), does not depend on the level of development of speech skills and on the conditions for teaching the informant his native language.
A curious variant is offered by A. Healy. He describes an experiment using two informants placed back to back. In front of one is a series of objects, and the other is silently shown any object of the same series. The informant names the subject, and his partner must choose a similar one. Thus, the constructed experiment “includes” not only the generation system, but also the perception system. The question of identity / non-identity of segments of speech is objectified, and it becomes possible (after a series of experiments) to assess the correctness of the statement [Healey 1964].
The task of the researcher is also to reveal and actualize all the potentialities of the language. Only if this condition is met, the description of the language will be sufficiently adequate. In a “field” experiment, carried out by traditional methods of working with informants, it is often impossible to discover “potential generative capabilities of the language, which, for one reason or another, are not widely used in the speech of speakers” [Kibrik 1970, 160-161]. Live conversation in this sense is very useful: in direct communication, the "turnover" of the potential of the language is much wider.
In the cited work, L.V. Shcherby distinguishes three aspects of linguistic phenomena. “The processes of speaking and understanding” constitute “speech activity”. Dictionaries and grammars of languages \u200b\u200bconstitute the second aspect - the "language system". “The totality of everything that is said and understood in a certain concrete setting, in a particular epoch in the life of a given social
this group is the third aspect of linguistic phenomena - "linguistic material" 2.
This implies the need to include in the modeling of the language ("language system") two other aspects - "speech activity" and "speech organization". If these three aspects find their expression in the model, then in the course of the linguistic experiment the linguistic phenomena should be verified in the unity of these three aspects. (In other words, a linguist must learn the language the speaker uses.)
A traditionally conducted linguistic experiment focuses on only one aspect of linguistic phenomena. The model is verified on the "individual speech system" as a specific manifestation of the language system, without taking into account those internal factors that ultimately determine the "individual speech system" itself.
The study of the trinity of linguistic phenomena must necessarily presuppose, in addition to the "linguistic system" and "linguistic material", also the clarification of "individual speech activity." In other words, it is necessary to find ways and means of actualizing the potential capabilities of the language for their functioning in the mind of the speaker. In this case, the actual linguistic data may not always coincide with those that are obtained as a result of the psychological (more precisely, psycholinguistic) "turn" of the experiment. This can be confirmed by the experiments conducted by L. V. Sakharny in Perm to study the psychological reality of word-formation models. These experiments have shown that the selection of semantically generalized classes of words, traditional in linguistics, does not fully correspond to specific semantic type features for grouping.
2 Wed A.A. Leont'ev, respectively: "language ability", "language process", "language standard" [Leontiev 1965].
their alignment in the mind of the speaker [Sakharny 1970]. As you can see, with such a "turn" of the experiment, linguistics also wins, because the picture of the "language system" is supplemented and refined. Thus, “... linguistics ... cannot be closed within the framework of the language standard. She must study the linguistic standard, correlating it both with the linguistic process and with linguistic ability ”[Leont'ev 1965, 58].
The above is especially important in relation to a thought experiment, which is understood as a type of linguistic experiment when the experimenter and the subject are one person. L.V. Shcherba, describing this type of experiment, used the well-known psychological term "self-observation" and wrote that "the individual speech system is only a specific manifestation of the language system, and therefore the study of the first for the cognition of the second is quite legal" [Shcherba 1931, 123]. However, the individual speech system is influenced by
internal and external factors, under the influence of which it is not reduced to a simple actualization of the language system. It is possible to eliminate these factors (or take them into account) only by preparing some conditions, formulating a hypothesis and introducing a model to be verified (see [Polivanov 1928]). The more attention is paid to the process ("speaking", formation, organization) of the statement during the thought experiment, the higher the measure of the adequacy of the linguistic experiment. Insufficient understanding of the important fact that any appeal to "linguistic consciousness", linguistic "introspection" is a kind of linguistic experiment, and that this experiment should be organized according to general rules, often leads to an underestimation of the place of experiment in the system of methods of "classical" linguistics and, accordingly , underestimation of the place of psycholinguistics in the system of disciplines of modern linguistics.
List of references
R.I. Avanesov Essays on Russian dialectology. T. I. - M., 1949.
Kibrik A.E. Psycholinguistic experiment in field linguistics // Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on Psycholinguistics. - M., 1970.
A.A. Leontiev Word in speech activity. - M., 1965.
A.A. Leontiev Psycholinguistic units and the generation of speech utterance. - M., 1969.
Polivanov E.D. Introduction to Linguistics for Oriental Studies. - L., 1928.
Ramul K.A. Introduction to the methods of experimental psychology. - Tartu, 1963.
L.V. Sakharny On the problem of psychological reality of the word-formation model // Materials of the 3rd Symposium on Psycholinguistics. - M., 1970.
L.V. Shcherba On the threefold aspect of linguistic phenomena and on experiment in linguistics // Izvestiya AN SSSR - ser. 7. - 1931. - No. 1.
L.V. Shcherba On the threefold aspect of linguistic phenomena and on the experiment in linguistics // In the book: V.A. Zvegintsev. History of linguistics of the 19th-20th centuries in sketches and extracts. Part II. -M., 1965.
Gudschinsky S.C. How to learn an unwritten language. - Santa Ana, 1965.
Harris Z.S. Structural linguistics. - Chicago, 1960.
Healey A. Handling unsophisticated linguistic informants. - Canberra, 1964.
Samarin W. Field linguistics. - New York, 1965.
The essence and main goal of a linguistic experiment in Russian lessons
Linguistic experiment is one of the main methods of working on a text. It can be carried out in the lessons of grammar, speech development; when working on the language of works of art; can accompany many other types of work.
A wide and conscious use of this technique requires a deep understanding of the essence of the experiment, knowledge of its various types. Mastering a linguistic experiment will help the teacher choose the right solutions in a problem situation, both in the lesson and outside the lesson, for example, when choosing didactic material.
What is the essence of a linguistic experiment, what are its types?
The source material of a linguistic experiment is the text (including the text of a work of art), the final material is its deformed version.
The main purpose of the educational experiment is to substantiate the selection of linguistic means in this text, to explain "the only correct placement of the only necessary words" (L. N. Tolstoy); moreover, the establishment of an internal relationship between the language means selected for a given text.
Realization of this should warn teachers against excessive enthusiasm for the process of experimentation and, at the same time, aim at the obligatory thorough and purposeful conclusions after comparing the secondary and primary materials of the text.
So, for example, experimenting with the sentence: “The Dnieper is wonderful in calm weather... "(Gogol), we get secondary material:"The Dnieper is beautiful in calm weather; The Dnieper is wonderful in calm weather… ”But we cannot stop at this in any way. This would deprive the experiment of purposefulness and turn it into an end in itself. The following conclusion is required: N.V. Gogol did not accidentally choose the wordwonderfulrather than synonymousbeautiful, wonderfuland so on, for the wordwonderfulalong with the main meaning ("very beautiful") contains a shade of originality, extraordinary beauty, uniqueness .
An indispensable condition for the truth of the conclusions in the experiment is the clarification of the boundaries of the observed linguistic unit: sound, word, phrase, sentence, etc. This means that if a teacher begins an experiment using a word, then until the end of the experiment he must work with the word, and not replace it with a phrase or other language units.
A linguistic experiment in its direction can be analytical (from the whole text to its components) and synthetic (from language units to the text). When studying the language of works of art at school, as a rule, an analytical experiment is used. This does not mean at all that a synthetic experiment should not take place in school. It can be successfully applied in grammar lessons and in this case is called construction .
By communicativeness - non-communicativeness of the final material (deformed text), a linguistic experiment can be positive and negative.
A negative experiment outlines the boundaries of the manifestation of the linguistic phenomenon under consideration in the best possible way and thereby reveals its specifics.
So, for example, attempts to replace in the phrasepour contemptthen the first, then the second word give one possible replacementpour contempt.
All other substitutions are negative material: "spray with contempt", "spray with anger", "spray with disdain", etc.
Such experimentation reveals the phraseological essence of the phrasepour contempt.
A visual demonstration of the features of the modern Russian literary language, the choice of a solution in a problem situation, the analysis of the writer's language can be carried out at school using various kinds of experiments.
1. Elimination of this linguistic phenomenon from the text. For example, the exclusion of all adjectives in the function of definition from the text (excerpt from "Bezhin Meadow" by IS Turgenev). Primary text:It was a beautiful July day, one of those days that only happens when the weather has settled for a long time. From the very early morning the sky is clear; morning dawn does not burn with fire: it spreads with a gentle blush.
Secondary text:It was ... a day, one of those days that only happens when the weather has settled for a long time. From early morning the sky is clear; ... the dawn does not burn with fire; it spreads ... blush.
Conclusion: the secondary text is devoid of qualitative characteristics of the described parts or objects. Such text does not give an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat the artistic details are in color, shape, etc.
This is how the teacher shows and learners learn about the semantic and artistic-pictorial function of adjectives.
2. Substitution (replacement) of a language element with a synonymous or single-function one. For example, in the text of the story by A.P. Chekhov's "Chameleon" wordgoesreplace with a wordwalks,and the wordwalkswordgoes: A police warden Ochumelov in a new overcoat and with a bundle in his hand is walking through the market square. Behind him is a red-haired policeman with a sieve filled to the top with confiscated gooseberries.
This replacement gives a secondary text with other combinations of words: a police overseer is walking, a red-haired policeman is walking. After such a replacement, the conclusion about the advantages of the primary text is inevitable, in which a neutral verb is first givengoesin relation to a person of high rank, then a synonymous verb is givenwalkswith a touch of solemnity
Expansion (of a widespread text) may aim at an in-depth understanding of it in slow reading .
Interpretation by means of deployment requires, in our opinion, the beginning of the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov:Both boring and sad, and there is no one to lend a hand in a moment of spiritual adversity ...Deployment reveals the generalized nature of the first impersonal sentence: “Both me, and you, and each of us are bored and sad ...” It would be wrong to attribute the feelings expressed in this poem only to the personality of the author.
4. Convolution may be aimed at showing the conditions and framework of artistic transformation or metaphorization of a word. For example, in the text of VP Kataev "A Farm in the Steppe" we roll up the last phrase. Primary text: ...the storm went far into the sea, where lightning frantically ran along the blue horizon and the roar of thunder was heard.
Secondary text: ...The thunderstorm went far into the sea, where lightning frantically ran along the blue horizon and a growl was heard…
Conclusion: wordgrowl(thunder) in the text of V.P. Kataev becomes a metaphor within the framework of the phrase. A word combination is a minimal framework for metaphorizing words.
5.Transformation (transformation) is used in school grammar when replacing the actual construction of a passive, declarative sentence with an interrogative(Apprentice writing – The presentation was written by the student. Brother Was at Work Today - Was the brother at work today?)
6. Permutation of words and other language units. For example, we rearrange the first line of the fable by I. A. Krylov "The Wolf and the Lamb":On a hot day, the lamb went to the stream to drink.We get: Wwent to the stream to get drunk lamb on a hot dayetc. Placing the verb in the first place emphasizes the action. Is this the author's intention? Such permutations vary the thought, accentuate the action, then its time, then the purpose of the action, etc., and provide a justification for the "only necessary arrangement of words", fixed by IA Krylov.
Unification - removal of the multidimensionality of the text. Any text (speech) is multifaceted and semantically capacious. It manifests the meanings and shades of meanings of words, the semantics of grammatical meanings and categories (for example, gender, number in nouns, kind in verbs); features of syntactic links and the structure of sentences, paragraphs; finally, the originality of rhythm melody, timbre of speech .
The following unification experiment can be proposed:
Take five texts of approximately the same volume as a basis as the primary material: business style, scientific, colloquial, artistic, journalistic. The words were replaced with syllablesta-ta-ta.At the same time, the number of syllables, word stress and rhythm melodies were preserved.
Thus, in the texts, vocabulary, morphology, syntax were eliminated to a certain extent, and the phonetic, sound side was partially preserved.
The secondary material of the experiment can be recorded on magnetic tape. When listening to it, one can assume that most of those in the audience will guess the style. Then follows the conclusion: rhythmmelody is a style-forming means, "makes a style." An observation was made: listening to the muffled voice of a television or radio announcer from afar, only by rhythm melodies, without distinguishing between words, one can assume what kind of transmission is going on (business, artistic, journalistic, etc.)
Experimenting with a coherent text, with the language of works of art or "the art of words" and inevitably, to some extent, dismembering the text, one must try to prevent the destruction of the aesthetic impression of the whole text. From time to time, as necessary, during the experiment, a whole or partial text should sound again and again, preferably in an exemplary performance (magnetic tape with a record of the masters of the artistic word, the best artists, records, reading by a teacher, students) .
When applying the experiment in the lessons of the Russian language and literature, one should maintain a sense of proportion; select the type, nature of the experiment in accordance with the selection of linguistic means in the text, in connection with the artistic and pictorial means of the work, which make it unique.
Kupalova A.Yu. The tasks of improving the system of methods of teaching the Russian language. M .: Walters Kluver, 2010.S. 75.
Shakirova L.Z. Workshop on the methodology of teaching the Russian language in the national school. M .: Unity-Dana, 2008.S. 86.
Fedosyuk M.Yu. Ladyzhenskaya T.A. Russian language for students of non-philology. Tutorial. - M: Nauka, 2007.S. 56.
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL "SYMBOL OF SCIENCE" No. 11-4 / 2016 ISSN 2410-700X
2. Raikhshtein AD Comparative analysis of German and Russian phraseology. - M .: Higher school, 1980 .-- 143 p.
3. Shevchenko V.D. Fundamentals of the theory of the English language: Textbook. - Samara: SamGAPS, 2004 .-- 72p.
4. Abbyy Lingvo: online dictionary [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru (date of access: 15.02.2016)
5. Duden online: dictionary of the German language [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.duden.de/ (date of access: 15.02.2016)
© Mineeva O.A. , A.A. Pirogova , 2016
Morozova Nadezhda Mikhailovna
dr. phil. Sci., Professor of the VI Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia
voronezh, RF E-mail: [email protected]
LINGUISTIC EXPERIMENT A.M. PESHKOVSKY AS A METHOD OF STUDYING THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
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The article discusses the views of A. M. Peshkovsky concerning the use of linguistic experiment in the practice of teaching the Russian language. In addition, specific examples of the use of a linguistic experiment by the scientist himself in works devoted to the study of the Russian language are analyzed. The scientist considered the linguistic experiment as an effective method of developing speech and stylistic skills in students.
Keywords
The method of linguistic experiment, the practice of teaching the Russian language, observation of the language, types of linguistic experiment.
The modern competence-based approach in the higher education system requires increased attention to the practical mastery of students' skills of oral and written communication in Russian in the course of studying such disciplines as "Russian language and speech culture", "Russian language in business documentation". Today, special attention is paid to those teaching methods that contribute to the formation of an exemplary linguistic personality of a specialist, whose speech corresponds to the norms of the Russian literary language, a high level of spelling, punctuation and stylistic literacy. Such methods include the method of linguistic experiment, about which the famous Russian scientist-linguist, Professor A.M. Peshkovsky, wrote in his works back in the 30s.
The works of AM Peshkovsky "Russian syntax in scientific coverage", "Our language", "How to teach classes in syntax and stylistics" and today are of great interest to teachers. In them, the scientist constantly emphasizes that observations of language are closely related to experiment. It is with the help of a linguistic experiment that "an intentional change in the actual phenomenon of speech is made for the purpose of learning."
Using simple and vivid examples, the scientist shows how this method can be used to detect the distinguishing features of grammatical concepts and phenomena.
A classic example of the use of a linguistic experiment for scientific purposes is, for example, the identification of the essence of isolated members of a sentence by substituting possible synonymous variants of the considered construction: I am surprised that you, with your kindness, do not feel this; I am surprised that you, so kind, do not feel it; I wonder that you being so
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL "SYMBOL OF SCIENCE" No. 11-4 / 2016 ISSN 2410-700X_
are kind, do not feel it; I am surprised that you, who are so kind, do not feel it; I am surprised that although you are so kind, you do not feel it. Compare: I'm surprised you and your wife don't feel it. The experiment made it possible for the scientist to conclude that "the intonation modifications discovered in the first of these examples are not outwardly, not accidental, but create a really special form of the phrase." The combination with your kindness is intoned as a separate sentence, as if inserted into the sentence that you do not feel it. A. M. Peshkovsky called such a minor member separate.
With the help of a linguistic experiment, A. M. Peshkovsky also shows the differences between composition and submission in complex sentences. For this, the relations expressed by unions in complex sentences were investigated from the side of their reversibility and irreversibility. The linguistic experiment was carried out with the following sentences:
He didn't go to school and has a headache.
He didn't go to school because he has a headache.
He has a headache and didn't go to school
He has a headache because he didn't go to school.
The meaning of the rearrangement is to try to tear the proposal from the union and put it ahead of the union, and put another proposal to the union. As a result of the experiment, it turned out that the union and such a break withstood, but the union because - no. Consequently, the union is because it is more closely related to the proposal that he begins by himself.
Different "behavior" of the unions in the considered sentences determines the nature of the semantic relations between the parts of a complex whole. In the first phrase, the rearrangement of sentences did not change the relationship between them, in the second, the relationship changed: what was the cause became the effect, and what was the effect became the cause. Consequently, the union because it forms with that sentence one meaningful whole, which it begins with itself. It can move from place to place without any changes in meaning for the whole complex whole (except for purely stylistic ones). And in the union and nothing like that.
“Thus,” Peshkovsky concludes, “therefore, in one case the indicator of the ratio stands between the correlated ones, and in the other - with one of them, that is, in one case we have what is called a composition, and in the other - that, what is called submission. "
Experiments of this kind help to identify various signs of the grammatical phenomena under consideration.
List of used literature
1. Peshkovsky A. M. Selected Works. - M.: Education, 1959 .-- S. 223.
2. Peshkovsky AM Russian syntax in scientific coverage. - M.: Education, 1956 .-- p. 415-416, p. 463-464.
© Morozova N.M., 2016
Valentina Nazarkina
master student gr. M-22, KSU, Abakan, RF E-mail: [email protected]
ASSOCIATIVE EXPERIMENT IN THE FORMATION OF INTERCULTURAL
COMPETENCIES
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The article reflects the problem of studying intercultural communication, the solution of which is successful
1. It is known that in the XX century. in various fields of science and art (in mathematics, biology, philosophy, philology, painting, architecture, etc.), many valuable ideas and initiatives of Russian scientists and cultural figures died out in the stifling atmosphere of Soviet totalitarianism, but received recognition and development in the West and decades later they return to Russia. This is largely the case for the method linguistic experiment, whose enormous role was insistently emphasized in the 1920s by A.M. Peshkovsky and especially L.V. Shcherba. “Having made any assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or shaping, etc., one should try whether it is possible to say a number of different phrases (which can be infinitely multiplied), applying this rule.<...> In the possibility of using the experiment lies a huge advantage - from a theoretical point of view - the study of living languages \u200b\u200b”(Shcherba 1974: 32).
In words, the need for experimentation in synchronous research is recognized, apparently, by all Russian linguists, in fact, however, the possibilities of this method are still insufficiently used. Foreign research on grammar, semantics, pragmatics is, as a rule, a series of experiments on several carefully selected examples and the interpretation of the results obtained. In Russia, work on modernlanguage in this respect differ little from works on stories language: both in those, and in others, large lists of examples from the examined texts are given and the size of the list itself is regarded as proof of the correctness of the developed position. At the same time, the fact is ignored that in real texts the analyzed phenomenon is often distorted exposure to additional factors... We forget A.M. Peshkovsky, who noted that it would be a mistake to see, for example, in the union and a spokesman for propagation, causal, conditional, adversarial, etc. relationships; this would mean that "everything that can be extracted from the material content of the sentences combined by it simply falls into the meaning of the union" (Peshkovsky 1956: 142). The researcher of the language finds himself in the position of a chemist who, for the chemical analysis of a certain metal, would take pieces of its ore of different mineral composition and attribute the observed differences to the metal itself. Obviously, the chemist will take for his experiment pure metal, free from impurities. We also have to operate with carefully selected examples that, if possible, exclude the influence of additional factors, and experiment with these examples (for example, replace a word with its synonym, change the type of speech act, expand a phrase at the expense of a diagnostic context, etc.).
5. The experiment should become for a linguist studying modern language as common a working technique as it is, for example, for a chemist. However, the fact that it occupies a modest place in linguistic research is by no means accidental. The experiment requires some skill and a lot of effort. Therefore, it seems to us, it is especially important to use the experimental material that is already available, “lies under our feet”. We mean language game.
Paradoxical fact: the linguistic experiment is much wider than linguists, they have been using (for many centuries, if not millennia) the speakers themselves - when they play with the form of speech.
An example is a series of experiments by O. Mandelstam with pronoun suchindicating a high degree of quality (e.g. he is so strong). Here are lines from a youthful poem of 1909:
I was given a body - what should I do with it,
So one and so mine.
Here is a somewhat unusual combination of pronouns such with adjective single and especially with the pronoun my... Combination so mine seems to be acceptable, since in its meaning it is close to "completely normal" combinations of the type so dear... However, Mandelstam himself clearly felt the unusualness of this combination and repeatedly used it in humorous verses, in a kind of auto parody:
I was given a stomach, what should I do with it,
So hungry and so mine? (1917)
(The comic effect is created by narrowing and lowering the topic itself, reducing it to stomach problems.)
Cheer up,
Get on the tram
So empty
Such an eighth. (C. 1915)
The comic effect is caused by the combination of the pronoun such with numeral eighth, which is difficult to comprehend as a quality adjective. Collocation such an eighth anomalous, but not meaningless: as a result of the game, new meaning arises. The fact is that, unlike the first, "prestigious", highlighted numerals (cf. first beauty, the first guy in the village, first of all) numeral eighth - unselected, "ordinary", and thus a combination such an eighth takes on the meaning of ‘so ordinary, ordinary’.
Superficial and deep sentence structure
Surface structure
Linguistic term for verbal or written utterances arising from the deep structure after operations of generalization, distortion, omission, etc.
EXAMPLE. The surface structure of each language, reflecting the features of historical development, determines the possibility of ambiguous translation from one language to another. For example, the literal translation from Russian into Ossetian of the concept of “iron discipline” has a meaning opposite to the Russian one, since in Russian iron, as harder, is implicitly opposed to wood, and in Ossetian, as softer, steel.
Granovskaya RM, Elements of practical psychology, St. Petersburg, "Light", 1997, p. 251.
At different levels - sound level, word level, sentence level, paragraph level, etc. - different patterns operate. Database of numerous forms of building journalistic, popular science, etc. texts at the level of several paragraphs are collected in the computer program "Techniques of Journalism & PR".
Generative grammar
A trend in linguistics that arose in the 1950s of the XX century, founded by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.
The approach is based on the idea of \u200b\u200ba finite set of rules (techniques) that generate all correct sentences of the language.
Thus, the approach does not describe the language “as it is”, as traditional linguistics did, but describes the process of language modeling.
Deep structure
The complete linguistic form, the full content of a particular utterance (message), from which, for example, after generalizations, omissions and distortions, a "surface structure" arises, which is used in everyday communication.
Analyzing different languages, N. Chomsky suggested that there are innate “deep structures” that are the same for different languages. The number of such structures is relatively small and it is they that make it possible to translate texts from one language to another, since they fix the general schemes for constructing thoughts and statements.
EXAMPLE. “As an example of the transition of a deep structure to a superficial one in the production of speech, N. Chomsky considered sentence (9), which, in his opinion, consists of two deep ones (10) and (11):
(9) A wise man is honest.
(10) The person is honest.
(11) Man is wise.
In order to “bring out” the superficial from the deep structure, a person, according to Chomsky, consistently performs the following operations: replaces the second group of the subject with the word which (a person who is wise, honest); omits which (man is wise, honest); rearranges man and is wise (wise man, honest); replaces the short form of the adjective mudra with a full one - and gets a superficial structure.
N. Chomsky introduces a number of rules for the transition of a deep structure to a surface structure (rules for substitution, rearrangement, arbitrary inclusion of some elements, exclusion of other elements, etc.), as well as prescribes 26 transformation rules (passivization, substitution, permutation, legation, adjunction, ellipse and etc.)".
Guide to NLP: Explanatory Dictionary of Terms // Comp. V.V. Morozov, Chelyabinsk, "A. Miller's Library", 2001, p. 226-227.
The deep structure forms the meaning of the sentence, and the surface structure is the written or sound embodiment of this meaning.
EXAMPLE. “We can say that language is always smarter than us, because it has accumulated and accumulated all the experience of mankind. This is generally the main accumulator of experience. Secondly, an understanding person, bringing in his situation, always understands according to this situation and sees in the text often more or more than the author. I have had such situations more than once when people came and said that in such and such a work I wrote such and such. I was surprised. They took the text and began to show me that I really had it written there. And when I took their position, I had to admit that it was written there. But I deliberately, reflexively did not put it there. We often have a lot in the text that we don't even suspect. And this is revealed through the process of understanding. "
Shchedrovitsky G.P., Organizational and managerial thinking: ideology, methodology, technology. Course of lectures / From the archive of G.P. Shchedrovitsky, Volume 4, M., 2000, p. 134.
EXAMPLE. “When a bully sticks to you on the street, he has a predetermined“ scenario ”- a mental template of future behavior for himself and for a potential“ victim ”(the content of such a“ scenario ”is usually easy to calculate). At the same time, the bully figured out in advance how to behave if you refuse to let him light a cigarette (“What a pity, bitch, ?!”). There is also a template in case you give me a cigarette ("What are you, bastard, are you giving me something raw ?!"). Even in the seemingly most unexpected case - and that is a template ("Whom did you send?"). Therefore, it is necessary to break all and any patterns of communication.
Real case:
Man, do you want an awl in the eye?
Fuck off, asshole, I got cops on my tail.
And both went in different directions. The semantics of the second phrase (in this case, the deep structure - Note of the Dictionary Editor) is as follows: "I myself am tough, don't touch me, but I'm being pursued." The aggressor's fantasy works in the direction: "He can fight back, besides, the police officers who are on his tail can detain me."
Kotlyachkov A., Gorin S., Weapons - word, M., "KSP +", 2001, p. 57.
EXAMPLE. “The Soviet linguist Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, at the introductory lecture on the course of linguistics, invited the students to make out what the phrase meant:“ The glocky kuzdra shteko bumbled the side and curled the bokrenka ”.
Think about this phrase, and you will agree with the students who, after a grammatical analysis, came to the conclusion that the meaning of this phrase is something like this: something feminine in one step did something over some male creature, and then began to do something - that's long lasting with his cub. Someone concretized: "The tigress broke the buffalo's neck and is chewing on the buffalo calf."
The artist even managed to illustrate this phrase. But, as the student of Professor Shcherba, Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky, rightly writes in the wonderful book "The Word about Words", no one in this case will draw an elephant that broke the barrel and rolls the barrel. "
Platonov KK, Entertaining psychology, M., "Young Guard", 1986, p. 191
Sections: Russian language
Person-centered approach, differentiated learning - these are the key concepts, without which it is impossible to imagine a modern school. The Russian language lesson also requires close attention. If the forms of work with students with low motivation are already clear for many teachers, then what to offer to those who are able to work at a high level of complexity?
One of the forms of working with gifted children in Russian lessons can be a linguistic experiment. In the dictionary of linguistic terms, the following definition is given: a linguistic experiment is a test of the conditions for the functioning of a particular linguistic element to clarify its characteristic features, the limits of possible use, and optimal use cases. “Thus, the principle of experiment is introduced into linguistics. Having made some assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or shaping, etc., one should try to see if a number of different phrases can be said (which can be infinitely multiplied), applying this rule ... An affirmative result confirms the correctness of the postulate ... But negative results are especially instructive: they indicate either the incorrectness of the postulated rule, or the need for some of its restrictions, or the fact that the rule no longer exists, but there are only dictionary facts, etc. . P." (L. V. Shcherba). The importance of using a linguistic experiment was noted by A. M. Peshkovsky, A. N. Gvozdev.
Finding new knowledge is carried out by the students themselves in the process of analyzing specific, particular phenomena of the language, from which they move to the general, to theoretical conclusions and laws.
For example, when studying the topic “Inanimate and inanimate nouns”, the knowledge of students with increased motivation for learning can be deepened with the help of a morphological experiment. Even in elementary school, children learned that animate nouns include those who answer the question: “Who?”, And those who answer the question: “What?” Are inanimate. In order for students to expand their knowledge and assimilate the difference between the scientific interpretation of nouns from the point of view of the category of animateness - inanimateness and the everyday idea of \u200b\u200bthis phenomenon, the following problematic situation can be created: is the word "doll" an animate or inanimate noun?
The linguistic experiment will consist in declining this noun in the plural in cases and comparing it with the forms of nouns that do not raise doubts about belonging to an animate or inanimate noun (for example, "sister", "board").
As a result of independent observations, students will come to the conclusion: for the nouns "doll" and "sister" in the plural, the accusative case coincides with the genitive case: ( no) dolls \u003d (see) dolls(no sisters \u003d I see sisters), R. p. \u003d V. p.
The nouns “doll” and “board” in the plural do not have the accusative form: no dolls \u003d I see dolls, but no boards \u003d I see boards. Doll formula: R.p. \u003d V.p. Board formula: I.p. \u003d V.p.
The division of nouns into animate and inanimate does not always coincide with the scientific concept of animate and inanimate nature.
In animate plural nouns, the accusative case coincides with the genitive case (in animate masculine nouns of the 2nd declension and in the singular).
In inanimate plural nouns, the accusative case coincides with the nominative case (for masculine nouns of the 2nd declension and in the singular, the accusative case coincides with the nominative case).
The nouns dead and corpse are synonymous, but the noun dead is animate (V.p. \u003d R.p .: I see a dead person - there is no dead person), and the noun corpse is inanimate (V.p. \u003d I.p .: I see a corpse - here there is a corpse).
The same can be observed with the example of the noun microbe. From the point of view of biology, this is a part of living nature, but the noun microbe is inanimate (V.p. \u003d I.p .: I see a microbe - there is a microbe here).
Sometimes fifth graders have difficulty in determining the case of nouns. They mix nominative and accusative, genitive and accusative. To understand in which case nouns of the 2nd and 3rd declensions are located, they can be replaced with nouns of the 1st declension, in which the endings of the indicated cases do not coincide: bought a portfolio, notebook - bought a book; invited a friend, mother - invited a sister. The singular form of nouns of the 1st declension, in which the dative case coincides with the prepositional case, can be replaced by the plural form: on the road - on the roads (prepositional case - on the roads).
The method of syntactic experiment can be widely used in working with students with increased motivation.
Students learn from textbooks that prepositions are not members of a sentence.
But interested children can be introduced to another point of view on the syntactic role of prepositions. Linguist Yu. T. Dolin believes: “In the process of speech practice, both the lexical and syntactic independence of a number of non-derivative prepositions noticeably increases.” The essence of the experiment will be to compare the use of two prepositions. For observation, take the lines of N. Rubtsov:
I, the young son of the sea trading posts,
I want the storm to sound forever
So that there is a sea for the brave,
And if not, then the pier.
Students will be sure to pay attention to the different uses of the two prepositions.
One preposition is used before the adjective, and the second without the nominal form. In the sentence, the preposition "without" answers the question "How?" and is a circumstance. To confirm the observation, we can offer an example from a poem by E. Yevtushenko:
And this explosion is heard (it happens late),
All life is henceforth dividing into before and after.
The conclusions of the students will be something like this: the prepositions "before" and "after" answer the questions "what?" and are additions.
When parsing, you can also apply the linguistic experiment method. In the case when difficulties arise with the definition of a member of a sentence, it is necessary to replace indistinct syntactic constructions with distinct ones. So in the sentence “Tourists have finally noticed an exit to the surface”, difficulties may arise with the word “surface”. Instead of the sentence “Tourists have finally noticed an exit to the surface”, one can use “Tourists have finally noticed an exit leading to the surface” or “Tourists have finally noticed an exit that leads to the surface”.
The possibility of replacing the prepositional-nominal combination “on the surface” with a participle and a subordinate attributive proves that we are dealing with a definition.
The "dumb" dictation can also be attributed to a linguistic experiment. On a sheet of paper, a number is written in number, an object is drawn next to it. It is necessary to put the number and noun in a certain case. For example, no 97 (figure), to 132 (figure).
A linguistic experiment can take place in a group form. Each group receives a task in which a question is formulated, didactic material is presented and an experiment program is proposed to obtain a certain result. The results of the experiment can be evaluated both by the teacher himself and by a group of expert students, consisting of the most prepared students.
A linguistic experiment helps students understand many of the difficult facts of the language, serves as a means to make sure that these facts are interpreted correctly.
