D.V. Sichinava, 2011

View (a term of Church Slavonic and Russian grammatical tradition; in other languages \u200b\u200b- French, English. aspect, it. Aspekt etc.) - the grammatical category of the Russian verb, based on the opposition of two meanings - the perfect form and the imperfect form. The view characterizes the situation from the point of view of its development in time (duration or momentality; completeness, repetition, etc.) and the position of the Observer in relation to the situation (angles: retrospective consideration of the situation, synchronous observation of a fragment of the situation, etc.). In the Russian language, the category of the species is dual, having both inflectional and derivational features. It is the backbone for the Russian verb (the only category by which any verb word form is characterized).

The morphological and semantic structure of the category of the species in the Russian language shows, despite the discrepancies in particulars, a significant closeness to the category of the species in other Slavic languages. At the same time, the two-term specific opposition of the Slavic type is arranged differently than in most languages \u200b\u200bof the world, where there are usually more species grammes, with more particular meanings, and at the same time they are purely inflectional.

1. Device of the category of type

The meaning of the perfect and imperfect form is closely related to the lexical meaning.

A set of perfective verbs representing a situation as an event ( gush, understand, burn) or, in some special cases, a time-limited process or state ( stand up, stand, get sick, get sick), is contrasted with a set of imperfective verbs, representing a situation as long-term or uncharacterized in relation to duration ( put, do, decide). Unlike time, the view does not localize the situation on the time axis, although in its minor meanings it can express temporal ordering (see Imperfect view / p. 3.2.2. Narrative).

Somewhat differently than for finite forms, the species opposition is arranged in the forms of participles and gerunds, see, as well as the articles Communion, gerunds. In particular, in the presentation of the perfect participle (such as going) are not considered normative, and gerunds are absent.

The species contrast is also relevant for some verbal nouns (mainly for the names of situations: reading - reading, much less often for agent names: savior - rescuer). Nevertheless, the number of such verbal names is extremely limited, in particular in comparison with other Slavic languages, for example, Polish [Ivannikova 1972], [Pazelskaya 2009].

When describing the semantics of a species, the concept of a species pair is usually used - a pair of perfect and imperfect verbs that exhibit significant common lexical meaning ( do - do, jump - jump, process - process) [Zaliznyak, Shmelev 2000: 45–52], [Shatunovsky 2009: 11–17], for the criteria of species pairing see. At the same time, the content of the specific opposition is different for different pairs of verbs. For example, to do- achieving the final result of the action do,and to jump- single action versus multiple jump [Maslov 1948], [Glovinskaya 1982], [Bulygina, Shmelev 1989], [Paducheva 1996], for more details see. In connection with this semantic heterogeneity, the concept of a species pair was questioned by some researchers, which caused a long discussion, see [Zaliznyak, Mikaelyan, Shmelev 2010].

The binary interpretation of the species took shape at the end of the 19th century. There is also a ternary interpretation of the Slavic species, in which the "secondary imperfect" (such as read in a row to read NSV\u003e read SV\u003e read NSV), which is semantically shifted towards the iterative (repetitive action), is considered as the “third kind” [Ivanchev 1971].

The so-called relic group has a special status. motor-multiple verbs - verbs of undirected or repetitive movement: ride - ride, fly - fly, run - run,supportive go - walk). Motor multiple verbs are formed using the same mechanisms as the secondary imperfectives from the perfective prefix verbs of motion (cf. come in - come in, fly out - fly out), but retain the same imperfect form as the directional verbs ( go, fly). For more information on motor multiple verbs, see.

There are several points of view on the structure of the species category in terms of inflection / word formation (see Grammatical category):

• elements of any species pair - forms of one verb; type is an inflectional category (VV Vinogradov's approach [Vinogradov 1947]);
• species pair elements are different words; type - a word-classifying category (dominant point of view; an approach applied, although not quite consistently, in [Grammatika 1980] or in [Petrukhina 2000]);
• type - word-formation category (M. V. Vsevolodova [Vsevolodova 1997], H. Philip);
• the formation of SV verbs from the NSV verbs is word formation, and the formation of NSV verbs from the SV verbs is inflection (the approach of S. O. Kartsevsky, Yu. S. Maslov [Maslov 1984/2004], A. V. Bondarko [Bondarko 1971]).

The lexicographic tradition implements the elements of species pairs as different vocabulary inputs, with a description of the lexical meaning of species pairs in only one article, but with the design of another member of a species pair as a reference article. The article [Bulygina, Shmelev 1989] considers various types of semantic relationships between elements of a species pair and shows that such a lexicographic description is not enough for them.

The species has both properties that speak in favor of a derivational interpretation, and properties that speak in favor of an inflectional interpretation:

2. Morphology

2.1. Morphological expression of the species

All verb word forms of the Russian language are characterized by type, except, possibly, the verb to be, demonstrating the individual properties of both types, and two-species verbs (see) in many contexts.

There is no definite indicator (way of expression) of a species in Russian morphology. Species meanings (usually together with others) are expressed by various means:

• stem (non-derivative verbs NSV - oven, sleep,SV - lie down, become);
• suffix ( decide-and-th - decide-and-th, shout-a-th - shout-well-th, process-a-th - process-a-th, in the latter case, together with the alternation of the root);
• prefix ( do - s-do);
• circumfix ( play - do-play-Xia).

View is a relative category (see Grammatical category); by themselves, the affixes do not express the specific meaning, which is marked by the difference between the sets of verbs SV and NSV. A change in the form is expressed by the fact of the transition of a verb from one word-formation model to another, and this transition can be repeated ( take - collect - collect - collect).

The closed list of non-derivative verbs refers to the perfect form (see the list in the article Perfect form). The rest of the non-derivative verbs are imperfect.

From a morphological point of view, as a form of NSV can be formed from the form of SV ( process - process), and the CB form from the NSV form ( do - do). The main morphological processes expressing the type are perfectivization and imperfectivation, that is, respectively, the formation of a perfect verb from an imperfect and the formation of an imperfect form from a perfect verb. Including the so-called possible. secondary imperfectivation - the formation of an imperfective verb from a perfective verb, in turn formed by perfection. The order of addition of morphemes plays an important role: for example, verbs visitand forgethave an identical morphological structure, but belong to different species; the first is formed by prefixed perfection to be, the second - suffixal imperfection forget.

2.1.1. Perfectivation

The main way of perfection is to attach a prefix to the NSV verb, which, in addition to the form, usually also expresses a certain derivational meaning. So, in perfect verbs make noise, make noise, make noise prefixes for-, proand from-along with the value of the perfect form, eigenvalues \u200b\u200bare also presented - the beginning of the situation, the limitation of the situation to a certain time interval, the end of the action. In some cases, relatively few in number (for example, do, cut), the meaning of the prefix is \u200b\u200bconsidered "purely specific", that is, expressing only the form (but not its own semantics). But there is also an alternative interpretation of such examples: the so-called. the Wei – Schoneveld hypothesis (named after the Czech and Dutch Slavists who put forward similar ideas in the 1940s – 1950s) explains this phenomenon by the coincidence of their own prefix and root semantics. So, the prefix from-means combining, making from parts ( to collect), and time-- separation ( smash), which coincides with the value of the roots doand to sawrespectively.

The prefix expression of grammatical meanings is generally not typical for the Russian language. Another example is perhaps the prefixed forms of degrees of comparison: the biggest, the biggest from big (see Comparative degree).

Suffix formation of the perfect form (suffixes -Well- , -anu-) also usually occurs in conjunction with the expression of the derivational meaning inherent in the suffix:

(1) And then sharply blew wind. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Faculty of unnecessary things (1978)]

(2) The leader took all this into account very well, he measured it out ten times, and then cut... [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Keeper of Antiquities (1964)]

2.1.2. Imperfectivation

Imperfectivation is expressed suffixally. Some perfective verbs have several imperfective derivatives formed with different suffixes: to cook– cook, cook... See Imperfect view / p. 1.3. Multiple imperfections.

There are two sets of imperfective verbs for movement. First row verbs indicate directional movement ( went to school, flew south). Second-row verbs (so-called motor-folds) have the meaning of repetitive movement (iterative: every day he walked down the street), familiarity of the situation ( he went to school), multidirectional movement ( he went to the bazaar this morning). There are thirteen such pairs in total: run - run, carry – to carry, to drive - to drive, to drive (to) - to drive (to), to drive – ride, walk - walk, roll (Xia) - roll (Xia), climb - climb, fly - fly, carry (sm) - wear (Xia), swim - swim, crawl - crawl, drag (Xia) - drag (smile) ).

Motor-multiple verbs, combined with perfectivating prefixes of direction, do not form SV verbs, keeping the imperfect form ( fly, run away; according to A.D.Shmelev, they are formed from the corresponding prefixed verbs SV: fly over, run away). Combined with a prefix from-most of them ( run, take, bring, go, go, roll, slide, fly, float, slide) form CB verbs with the meaning of bidirectional movement with a return to the starting point:

(3) Many fly off I want to go into space, but it costs more than $ 20 million. [Izvestia (2002)]

Wed also a language game with phraseological units marry:

(4) She is already, as they say, got married once. [G. Ya Baklanov. In a bright place, in a sinister place, in a deceased place (1995)]

For more information on perfectivization and imperfectivation, see the Morphology sections of the Perfected and Imperfected articles

2.2. Form set

The set of forms for imperfective and perfective verbs is different and asymmetric from the morphological and semantic points of view. So, morphologically similarly constructed forms of presentation (see Time) are interpreted for NSV verbs as forms of present tense ( writes), and for perfective verbs - as the future tense form ( will write).

Table 1. Examples of combinations of species with different grammatical meanings

	perfect view	imperfect species
elapsed time withdrawn. incl.	read	was reading
currently seized. incl.		is reading
seized future tense. incl.	read
valid present participle	- (reading)	reading
valid past participle	read	read
present passive participle		readable
passive past participle	read	read
present adverb		reading
past participle	having read	reading
infinitive

As part of the analytical form of the future tense, only imperfective verbs are normatively used (* we will see), see the article Future tense.

Perfective gerunds, unlike imperfective gerunds, are not opposed in time ( bringing - bringing - bringing), for more details see the article The participle.

2.3. Two-kind verbs

Bispecific verbs are verbs, the specific interpretation of which depends on the context. The use of two-species verbs in different species meanings are traditionally considered forms of the same word [Bondarko, Bulanin 1967: 88]. You can also consider them as two homonymous verbs included in a species pair [Zaliznyak, Shmelev 2000]. Most of them belong to the productive class with the suffix -ova- (profess, inherit, pass and others), this includes numerous borrowed verbs in - irova-, -isova-, -izirova-, -icia-: summarize, inform, paralyze, modernize, privatize, electrify), as well as the closed class of verbs not in - eat: acquire, combine, promise, bequeath, command, wound, marry, execute, baptize, flee(‘Escape’).

(5) Another example: until 1997, apartments were registered in the joint ownership of the spouses without determining the shares - when one of them died, the inheritance was not opened, and the living space was automatically inherited another spouse. [Izvestia (2002)] - NSV

(6) When subsequently young Baldwin inherited to his father, he in every possible way avoided war and bloodshed. [AND. p. Ladinsky. The last path of Vladimir Monomakh (1960)] - SV

(7) Once a week Valeria ran to Sosnovsky's office, in detail informed about affairs in the editorial office. [L. Korneshov. Newspaper (2000)] - NSV

(8) - Wigs are no longer worn! - informed Verochka. “And thank God,” Kalugina sighed with relief. [E. Ryazanov, E. Braginsky. Office Romance (1977)] - SV

(9) But the time of decrepitude comes for the light-loving, and from under their canopy, heavy spruces break out into the light, executed alder and birch. [IN. Grossman. Life and Fate, Part 2 (1960)] - NSV

(10) If his executed, then the Russians will have mercy on you for this. [D. Granin. Bison (1987)] - SV

For a number of verbs, duality is a property of a part of the verb paradigm; in terms of forms, they are single-species [Knyazev 2007]. For example, organize can be understood as an imperfect verb only in the present tense:

(11) Insurance of the activities of notaries organize regional and Federal notary chambers. ["Lawyer" (2004)]

In the past tense, it acts only as a perfect verb:

(12) In Bryansk, Sergei quickly organized his own business, became a director of a company and plunged into the Russian economy, which had nothing in common with the one he was taught at Moscow State University. ["Crime Chronicle" (2003)]

Two-species verbs function unequally in the meanings of the imperfect and perfect types. From this point of view, the following groups of verbs are distinguished:

• verbs denoting situations (usually speech or transmission of information), the result of which is due to the very presence of a situation ( appeal, declare);
• verbs with the meaning of change of state ( nickel);
• verbs denoting gradual changes, each stage of which can be considered a new state ( reform).

Verbs whose process and productive meanings are very close in meaning ( appeal, declare, order, admonish), have relative indifference to expressions of the form . To express the completeness of the action from many two-species verbs of such semantics, as the language masters them, perfective prefix verbs are formed (cf. report back, signal, inform). In some cases, there is competition between consoles: react, react, react.At the same time, an unprefixed verb can still be used in the context of SV:

(13) What could Gossnab do if Gosplan already reported to the Council of Ministers and the Central Committee of the CPSU on the work done? [AND. Tarasov. Millionaire (2004)]

Verbs with the meaning of reaching the state ( marry, expropriate, liquidate, dispose of). From individual verbs of similar semantics (a group of verbs in - ova with stress on the last syllable), paired imperfective verbs with the suffix -you-e.g. educate, arrest, localize.

A number of non-suffix verbs of this semantics have lost their imperfect use, which was still noted in the literature of the 19th century:

(14) He asked me to take him with me, since he never saw how arrest or take away the papers. [AND. I. Herzen. The past and thoughts. Part six. England (1864)]

Some verbs of achieving a state, on the contrary, lose the interpretation of the perfect form ( nickel plating, disinfect), cf. admissible in the XIX century:

(15) Taking out his greatcoat, he looked very proudly and, holding it in both hands, threw it very dexterously over the shoulders of Akaki Akakievich; then he pulled and restrained her from behind with his hand down; later draped her Akaky Akakievich is somewhat wide open. [N. V. Gogol. Overcoat (1842)]

Finally, verbs denoting gradual changes, each stage of which can be considered a new state ( automate, electrify, reform) are consistently used in both types of values.

Interpretation of two-species verbs is unambiguous in the context of morphological forms characteristic of one of the species, namely:

• НСВ - forms of the future complex ( i will inherit), present participle ( attacker, attacked) and gerunds on - and (privatizing, attacking);
• SV - gerunds on -v (shis) and the use of morphological forms of presentation such as attacking in the meaning of the future.

(16) During the day, tactical aviation, as a rule, made from 120 to 150 sorties, attacking from 20 to 25 objects. [AND. Mikhailov. Bosnia and Herzegovina. Year 1995 (2004)]

(17) Now I will add a letter to my girl and attacking with the support of Viktor Petrovich roast lamb - the hostess sets the table ... [S. Babayan. Captain Nezhentsev (1995-1996)]

3. Semantics

3.1. Invariant value

The issue of the invariant meaning of Russian species is controversial. In the works of Yu. S. Maslov, AV Bondarko and others, the main opposition between a perfect and an imperfect species is considered to be a "closed whole" - "a developing process." In the work [Glovinskaya 1982], which follows, the SV invariant is proposed to consider the meaning ‘to begin to exist’, and the NSV invariant ‘to exist in each of a number of successive moments’. In some works, there is also a more general formulation: SV denotes a change that has occurred, as a rule, the beginning of a new state, and NSV denotes a continuation of the previous state or process, [Barentsen 1995], [Shatunovsky 2009]. This formulation does not cover the verbs of the restrictive mode of action (see Perfection): stand for two hours, be at home (but these verbs constitute a known exception in the class of SV verbs, both semantic and combinable) and poorly take into account the general factual use of the NSV (see Imperfect form / p. 3.1.3. General meanings): who bought the tickets?

Anna A. Zaliznyak and A. D. Shmelev [Zaliznyak, Shmelev 2000] interpret the species differently, considering it an imperfect species (denoting a state) as a marked species. Perfect view, from their point of view, covers all other types of situations.

3.2. Replacement of SV by NSV. Maslov criterion

When describing the semantics of the Russian species, the concept of a species pair is often used - a pair of verbs differing exclusively or almost exclusively in species characteristics ( do - do). The functional criterion of Yu. S. Maslov [Maslov 1984/2004: 53] (more precisely, a "bundle" of two criteria) is often considered as a criterion for species pairing, which states that a pair is made up of two verbs for which the following two statements are simultaneously true:

A. NSV of the present tense can be used instead of the SV of the past tense in the context of the present historical (see Time) with event meaning. Wed two examples, related in this way:

(18) The next day arrives a small car with bread and pasta on the farm brings and sweet water. [B. Ekimov. On the farm (2002)]

(19) Gloria arrived early, at eight o'clock, and brought a whole bag of money in small bills, the kind that she was paid to ride a camel. [AND. Shimansky. Australia through the Eyes of a Russian, or Why Camels Don't Spit There (2002)]

B. NSV stands for SV in the context of describing recurring events:

(20) Every evening he took scissors, sat down on the shore of the pond and little by little cut them. [FROM. Kozlov. How the Hedgehog and the Bear Cub saved the Wolf (2003)]

It is assumed that Maslov's criterion makes it possible to delimit the actual species oppositions (i.e. oppositions in species pairs) from oppositions in the mode of action. However, he forces us to consider as part of the species pair verbs CB with a clearly initial meaning, for example, run - run (jumped up and ran at praesens historicum jumps up and runs). But if we consider the species as a derivational category (see), the problem of species pairing loses its fundamental meaning and remains a purely functional property of verbs.

3.3. Semantic oppositions in species pairs

There are several types of semantic oppositions in species pairs, different in regularity and prevalence. The specific type of species oppositions depends on the semantic classes of the verbs participating in them.

0. One-shot vs. multiple ( visit<один раз>, SV - visit<каждый месяц> , НСВ) - difference in terms of quantitative aspectuality; opposition, which is present in all verbs forming species pairs [Paducheva 1996: 89], in particular, it may be unique.

1. Limiting species pairs - the verb NSV means a process that in the normal case ends with the achievement of a certain natural limit, and SV - the achievement of this limit ( build - build).

2. Perfect species pairs: SV means an instant transition, NSV - an achieved state ( see - see, feel - feel).

3. "Trends" – the verb НСВ means a situation, if unchanged, leading to the result, indicated by the verb SV: our team loses 0: 2 - our team lost 0: 2.

4. « Properties » : Bottle accommodates / contained seven liters <НСВ выражает свойство бутыли, а семантика СВ включает Говорящего / Наблюдателя, который сначала не знал, а потом узнал это свойство> [Glovinskaya 1982].

5. The meaning of continuity / discontinuity: Athletes continue workouts <НСВ означает ‘не переставали’> / Athletes will continue training in Moscow <СВ означает ‘вновь начнут после перерыва’>.

In [Apresyan 1980] and [Glovinskaya 1982], a non-standard semantic relationship is seen in non-generative uses of the verbs of motion, where the subject is an extended spatial object such as a road, fence, river: There is a road near the gatehouse turns / turned. They associate the opposition SV / NSV in these pairs with the presence of the Observer in the second case. Meanwhile, according to [Paducheva 1996], the presence of the Observer is expressed here not by the form, but by the lexical meaning of the verb in its given use, so that the replacement of SV by NSV preserves the Observer. For example, the Observer is preserved when replacing SV in the sentence There is a road near the gatehouse turned on NSV pros. time: There is a road near the gatehouse turned ; or in the example.

The Moving Observer is also preserved in those cases when the verb NSV expresses a constant property of the road. So, in the example At the fifteenth kilometer the road turns South the verb retains its valence in the direction of movement, and only the Observer can move [Paducheva 1996: 99]. Thus, the presence of the Observer in the SW can only explain the non-standardness of pairs of the type accommodate - accommodate (NSV accommodate denotes a property that does not imply an Observer), but not pairs like turn – turn.

Verbs of the perfect form of a restrictive mode of action (limits) (see. Perfect form) are sometimes interpreted as forming a species pair with the corresponding verb NSV: read - NSV, read - SV [Petrukhina 2000],.

3.4. Kind and denial

In a number of contexts, NSV replaces CB when negated:

• imperative ( Do not tell me! Wed Tell me!);
• the infinitive in the imperative function ( Do not get up!, cf. Stand up!);
• infinitive for modal verb ( No need to explain Wed Gotta explain).

(21) Let me see! [Katia]. Just don't turn it off! [Denis]. Are you writing it down? [Idle conversation of young people, Moscow region (2005)]

(22) No need to hammer your head schoolchildren with words like "structuralism" or descriptions of the merits of its founders. [M. Arapov. When the text makes sense (2003)]

3.5. Species pairing and polysemy

Polysemous verbs can have different species pairs in different meanings:

(23) Meanwhile quickly it was getting dark, night was approaching ― like the last on their hectic path. [IN. Bykov. Swamp (2001)]

(24) Somehow fast it got dark and it was wintering. [FROM. Jurassic. Hofmann's Wallet (1993)]

(25) Babanova's eyes widen, face darkens, the figure becomes rigid, the movements are sharp, angular, sharp. [IN. Rozov. Surprise before life (1960-2000)]

(26) And he has again face darkenedand he didn't touch the cake. [T. Nabatnikov. Cat's birthday (2001)]

4. Statistics

This section provides statistics on the grammeme of the species in the texts of the Main Corpus and its compatibility.

Table 2. The ratio of species in combination with various forms of the verb paradigm

Parameter			Note
All verb word forms			Verb included to be
All verb word forms			The verb is excluded to be
Finite forms (indicative + conditional mood)			Influence of the present time (no SV)
Past tense and conditional mood
Future tense			Analytical future tense plus forms is included in NSV i willfrom the verb to be... Counting by the number of word forms of the type i willunderestimates the number of forms, since the scope i willseveral verbs can fall: With a month they will play and fly, Play, fly, put you to sleep (V.A. Zhukovsky, Forest Tsar)
Imperative
Participle			Passive participle form CB ( open) - active in live speech (the rest of the book)
Gerunds
Infinitive

Bibliography

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• Barentsen A. A three-step model of the invariant of the perfect form in Russian // Karolyak C. (Ed.) Semantics and structure of the Slavic form, vol. I. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe WSP. 1995.S. 1–26.
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• Bulygina T.V., Shmelev A.D. Mental predicates in aspectology // Logical analysis of language: Problems of intensional and pragmatic contexts. Moscow. 1989. pp. 31–54.
• Vinogradov V.V. Russian language: grammatical teaching about the word. M. 1947.
• Vsevolodova M.V. Seminal composition of the verb word. (On the question of the typology of the species) // Typology of the species: problems, searches, solutions. Abstracts of an international scientific conference. Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov. Faculty of Philology. M .: Publishing house Mosk. un-that. 1997.
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Main literature

• Bondarko A.V., Bulanin L.L. Russian verb. L. 1967.
• A. Bondarko Type and tense of the Russian verb. M. 1971.
• A. Bondarko Problems of grammatical semantics and Russian aspectology. SPb .: SPbSU. 1996.
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• Glovinskaya M.Ya. Polysemy and synonymy in the temporal system of the Russian verb. M .: Azbukovnik / Russian dictionaries. 2001.
• Zaliznyak Anna A., Shmelev A.D. Introduction to Russian Aspectology. M .: YARK. 2000.
• Knyazev Yu.p. Grammatical semantics: Russian in a typological perspective. M .: YASK. 2007.
• Maslov Yu.S. Essays on Aspectology. L .: LSU. 1948. (Reprinted as part of Maslov's Selected Works, M. 2004).
• Melig H.R. Sentence semantics and species semantics in Russian // New in foreign linguistics, XV. M .: Progress. 1985.
• E.V. Paducheva Semantic research. M .: YARK. 1996.
• Rassudova O.P. The use of verb species in Russian. M .: Moscow State University. 1968.
• Shatunovsky I.B. Problems of the Russian species. M .: YASK. 2009.
• Bybee J. L., Dahl Ö. The creation of tense and aspect systems in the languages \u200b\u200bof the world // Studies in language, 13. 1989. P. 51–103.
• Comrie B. Aspect. Cambridge. 1976.
• Coseriu E. Das romanische Verbalsystem. Tübingen. 1976.
• Dahl Ö. Tense and aspect systems. Oxford, 1985.
• Smith C. The parameter of aspect. Dordrecht. 1991.

There is also a Russian term aspect, commonly understood as a synonym for the term view, less often these concepts differentiate (for example, viewis understood as the opposition of SV and NSV of the Slavic type, a special case of a broader typological category aspect). Accordingly, the area of \u200b\u200blinguistics that studies the species is called aspectology.

Along with it there is also a suffix -Well-with a process meaning, forming NSV verbs, which, unlike the considered one, is capable of alternating with zero ( get wet - mok (zero)).

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The species category is a system of opposed to each other two series of verb forms: a number of verb forms denoting a limited integral action (perfective verbs), and a number of verb forms that do not have a sign of a limited integral action (imperfective verbs). All verbs are covered by the species category.

Limiting an action to a limit means limiting an action to an abstract, internal limit, representing an action as a holistic act, as opposed to representing an action as a process in its duration or repetition.

Nonsov verbs. species do not have a sign of limited action by a limit, a sign of the integrity of an action. This is the categorical meaning of the nes. species. Hence the ability of the nes verbs. form to express an action in the course of its flow, in particular an action tending to reach the limit.

In the verbs of owls. the type of limit reached by an action is most often interpreted as a certain critical point, upon reaching which the action, having exhausted itself, stops: The boy rewrote the work for a long time and, finally, rewrote it; He whitewashed and whitewashed the ceiling; The snow melted and melted. This is a kind of integrity of action when an action that lasts and tends to the limit ends with its achievement.

In most cases, the limit is achieved as a specific goal with the result of the action preserved after its achievement (rewrite, whitewash). This is one of the important realizations of the integrity of the action, its limited by the limit.

Corresponding verbs are not. species (write, whitewash) mean the desire to reach the limit of action.

Other owls verbs. species mean reaching the limit as an involuntary completion, the implementation of a transition to a state: weaken, grow, wither, melt. Relative verbs nesov. species mean an involuntary increase in the state, the process of transition into a state: weaken and weaken, grow and grow, wither and wither, melt.

Owl verbs. species can also express such a limit that limits the action in time, fixes its beginning (sing, speak), the end (but not exhausted) (dissuade, make noise, dine), some time period (lie down, stand), limiting the action to one act of it committing (jump, shout).

The meaning of limiting action by a limit is characteristic of all verbs of owls. species. But the meaning of reaching the limit by action as a kind of critical point, after which the action, having exhausted itself, should stop, is not characteristic of all verbs. It depends on the semantics of the verb stem.

Some verb stems are capable of expressing their semantics in Sov. in the form of reaching this critical point (whitewash, write, plow), and in nesov. form - the desire to achieve it (whitewash, write, plow); such verbs are called stem verbs.

Other verb stems are not able, in their semantics, to express the achievement or desire to reach such a limit; these are verbs with an unlimited stem meaning (to lie, sleep, be sad).

Russian grammar.

One of the points in the study of the Russian language is the study of such a part of speech as a verb. The verb has several forms, types, conjugations. In this article, we will dwell on how you can determine the type of a verb. There are only two of them: perfect and imperfect.

Determine the kind of a verb using a question

This is the simplest and most reliable option, which does not require a lot of time and additional knowledge.

Perfective verbs answer the question "What to do (do, did, did)?", And for imperfective verbs we ask the question "What to do (do, did, did)?"

Determine the type of verb by the nature of the action

Perfect verbs denote an action that, by the time this verb is used, has already been completed or will be completed by a certain time (or upon reaching a certain goal). Also indicate actions that do not need to be repeated. They can indicate actions in the future, the main limit is the very implementation of this action. That is, the action is always limited to some kind of framework.

Imperfect verbs are not limited in time and can occur at the moment, denote long-term actions, actions that require repetition.

Example. The verb “wash” means that something must be completely washed at some particular moment. The action will end when the desired result is achieved, which means the verb is perfect.

The verb “wash” means that something must be washed for an indefinite period of time. Due to the fact that the duration of the action is not limited, we can conclude that the verb is imperfect.

However, you should not determine the type of a verb only by meaning. It will be safer to additionally ask a question, as we did in the first paragraph. This way you can avoid accidental mistakes.

Determine the kind of a verb by parsing a word

Each of the types of verbs has some specific features in word formation. These signs can also tell you what kind of verb you are dealing with.

The following features are characteristic of perfective verbs:

• prefixes "s", "you", "by", "na", "pro", etc.,
• the suffix "well".

The following signs are characteristic of imperfective verbs:

• prefixes "s", "you", "by", "na", "pro", etc.,
• suffix "willow", "yva", "wa", etc.

After reading this article, you will notice that determining the form of a verb can be very quickly and without much difficulty. You just need to know a few important rules and features, for example, what question does this or that kind of verb answer or what suffix is \u200b\u200bcharacteristic of it.

Why do we need a kind of verb?

We all know what an abundance of verb tenses in the English language. Or French. Or in Spanish. This has its own unconditional charm - but there are also certain difficulties. How can all this be remembered - the past simple, the past continued, the past connected with the present, the past perfect and imperfect, the pre-past ... And if we are talking about Romance languages, then to what has been said, we must also add a number of Modo Subjuntivo / Subjonctif forms expressing all the same but with a touch of subjectivity ...

In this regard, the Russian language - the drum roll should be heard here - is much, well, simply incomparably simpler! We have only three tenses: past, present, future. However, let us interrupt the jubilation and think: could we fully express our thoughts if everything was limited to this? Why, then it would not be interesting for us to talk at all!

And so that our thought is formed accurately, beautifully, interestingly, diversely - the Russian language has an excellent means: it has a kind of verb! And in this sense, the form of the verb is our best friend, and not at all a blood enemy. Contrary to the popular point of view, the form of the verb was created not in order to hopelessly complicate our life, but in order to make it easier and more beautiful.

What is the kind of a verb and how do you learn it?

Forget that verb form is a tricky topic. In my life, I have taught Russian to several hundred students. From all over the world, from all, it seems, continents. And therefore I know that the bulk of problems with the type of the verb can be completely removed if from the very beginning the meaning and use of the species are clearly explained and consolidated. In doing so, it is important to follow two conditions.

Condition one:

First, you need to master and thoroughly consolidate the basics of this grammatical topic, and only then turn to more complex special cases.

Condition two:

Verb pairs (in the sequence "imperfect form-perfect form" - this is how they will be written in any textbook, grammar aid, and so on) must be memorized. Even if you are lazy, even if you don’t want to, there’s nothing you can do. The verb, especially in the everyday life sphere, is the organizing center of the sentence. Give him enough attention at the initial stage - and you will never regret it. Of course, at first we will talk about a relatively small number of verbs (in this case, you need to be able to actively use all grammatical forms, that is, both the imperfect form and the perfect form in the present, past and future tenses), but gradually the list should expand.

In this article we will talk exactly about the basics of the topic. "Kind of verb".

All verbs in Russian have the form: either imperfect (НСВ), or perfect (SV). That is, every time you use a verb when constructing a phrase, you choose not only the tense, but also the type of the verb. A verb does not exist without a form in Russian!

NSV verbs express an action in the process of its flow. CB verbs denote action, limited by a limit (we often define this as "result").

Compare:

is he is readingbook (NSV): we imagine a person sitting at a table in a library or at home in a comfortable armchair. In front of him is an open book, he runs his eyes page after page - that is, before our eyes unfolds process, course of action .

is he read book (SV): The reading is over, the book is closed and put aside, it may have already returned to the shelf or library. Before us - limit, result, end of action .

That is, building your own sentence with one or another verb, you first have to decide which kind of verb to choose: imperfect or perfect. So, the English verb read corresponds to the species pair "read (НСВ) / read (SV)". If you want to say something about the process of action, then you will form the corresponding form from the infinitive “read” (NWS); if the action is completed and has a result - from "read" (CB). [The infinitive is the basic form of the verb, the form you find in the dictionary].

Let's consider another example with a new species pair: write (NSV) / \u200b\u200bwrite (SV).

It writesletter (НСВ) - process, course of action: lines one after another appear on a sheet of paper.

It wroteand the letter is two o'clock (NSV) - we are again facing a process of action, but this time it is relegated to the past. From this sentence, we learn that for a certain time a girl unknown to us was sitting with a sheet of paper and a pen at a table or in front of a computer. We do not know how this process ended. Was the letter finished? Was it sent to the addressee? The proposal does not provide answers to these questions.

A fundamentally different situation in the following example:

It wrote letter (CB). This sentence tells us that there is a limit to the action, and a specific result has been achieved: the letter is finished, lies on the table in an envelope, or has already been sent.

In the Russian language there is a small number of two-species verbs (that is, verbs that can be used both in the meaning of the NSV and in the meaning of CB) and a certain number of single-species verbs (that is, verbs that do not have a species pair and are used only in one form). We will not dwell on them now, it would be somewhat premature. Now we're going to talk about verbs that form species pairs - because it is these verbs in the Russian language that the majority, and at the initial stage it is very important to understand the difference between the perfect and the imperfect form of the verb and learn how to use them in speech.

Formation of forms of a perfect and imperfect form

By way of education species-pairing verbs, can be divided into three groups:

2.suffixes, for example: to tell - to tell

3.supplementary, for example: speak - say

Let's dwell on each of the groups in more detail.

1. What happens to the verbs of the first group is called the word "perfection". It means that perfect form ("perfect", hence the name) is formed from the imperfect form by adding a prefix, or a prefix (pro, s-, po, you-, etc.). It is impossible to guess with the help of which prefix the perfect species will be formed! Therefore, verb pairs can only be memorized. So, remember the minimum program:

to read - aboutread write - on thewrite, draw - on thedraw, draw - on thedraw, do - fromdo, take pictures - fromtake pictures, sing - fromsing dance - fromdance, play - fromplay, be able to - frombe able, able - fromcan, eat - fromeat (something specific; for example, eat an apple), eat - byeat, drink - bydrink, drink - youdrink (something specific: for example, drink a glass of juice), wash - bywash (or youwash), call - bycall, think - bythink, knock - byknock, give - bygive, kiss - bykiss, have breakfast - byhave breakfast, lunch - byhave lunch, have dinner - byhave supper, get acquainted - bymeet, change - bychange (or aboutchange), watch - bywatch, listen - bylisten, put - byput, know - atknow, see - atsee, hear - athear, cook - atcook, wait - bywait, pay - behindpay (or aboutto pay) and finally learn - youlearn.

Exception: buy (НСВ) - buy (CB)!

1. The second group behaves in exactly the opposite way. Here "imperfectivation" takes place, and the direction is reversed: a prefix is \u200b\u200badded to the perfect form - and thus an imperfect form appears ("imperfect"). As in the case of the first group, what kind of suffix we need to form a species pair of each specific verb can neither be guessed nor deduced logically. Therefore, we remember the minimum program:

give - give, get tired - get tired, get up - get up, open - open, forget - forget, tell - tell, show - show, consider - consider, ask - ask, decide - decide, study - study, receive - receive, repeat - repeat, quit - quit, finish - finish, answer - reply, send - send, congratulate - congratulate, understand - understand, hug - hug, start - start, remember - remember, choose - choose... Well, if you have already learned this, then you can rest - rest!

1. The third group of verbs behave in a very special way and do not obey any rules. The only thing that can be said about them is that the imperfect form and the perfect form of these verbs are completely different from each other. Therefore, these verbs just need to be learned by heart. Cheer up, there are not many of them:

speak - say, take - take, put - put, seek - find, catch - catch.

Present, past and future tense of the verb

Already at the initial stage of learning Russian it is very important to understand and remember:

● imperfective verbs have three forms of tense: present, past, future, for example:

I'm reading a magazine;

I was reading a magazine yesterday.

● perfect verbs have only two tense forms: past and future, for example:

I read your letter;

Tomorrow I will read your letter.

This has to do with the meaning of species: a perfect form means an action limited by a limit, and an imperfect kind means a process. In the present tense, we are always dealing with a process, and never with a result (compare: i read, you look, he eats ...). The limit, or the result, can either be already reached (and then we use the past tense, for example: “ He ate an apple"), Or will be reached in the future (then the future tense will be used, for example:" He will eat an apple»).

The main meanings of the types of the verb

In order to understand well and remember the meanings of the types of the verb in Russian, analyze which of them are in your native language, and which you will just need to remember.

There are three main meanings for NSV: the first is “process / duration / duration of action”, the second is “regular / repeated action” and the third is “fact”, while SV has two - “result” and “one-time” (we will combine them into one meaning, since the line between them is often blurred).

Compare:

The first and second meanings of NWS, as well as the only meaning of SV, usually do not present difficulties for foreign students: it is enough to understand the logic once and remember one or two simple examples.

He read, read the novel - and finally read (in the first part of the sentence, we used NI, since we are talking about the process of action; in the second, we used SV, since the action is over).

He opened, opened the door - and finally opened (the same situation: NSV-SV).

In the morning he looks through the newspapers (used NSV, since it describes a regular action).

He will read this book in two days. (used SV, future tense: the proposal tells us that the result will be achieved in two days).

He plays tennis every week (regularity \u003d NSV).

In addition, these meanings of the species can be accompanied by certain words that facilitate the selection of the desired form. Let's write them in the form of a table:

Difficulties for foreigners are usually caused by the third meaning of the NSV, designated as "fact". Therefore, I advise you to immediately pay attention to it, listen more and remember how the Russians use it, and also consolidate the use of this meaning on a large number of examples. For example:

Last night i washed, soap dishes, cooked dinner and then watched TV.

In the afternoon I walkedto the Hermitage, and then had dinner with a Russian friend in the same cafe.

Thanks, I don't want coffee, I already drank coffee this morning.

From these sentences, you get general information about what your interlocutor was doing. In this case, you are not interested in whether this or that action was completed, whether this or that result was obtained.

It is important to understand that in these sentences it is possible to replace the NSV with the meaning of "fact" with the SV with the meaning of "result". In this case, the shade of the phrase will inevitably change (foreigners often do not take into account this change in meaning). Having said “ I washed, washed dishes, cooked dinner", The Russian means - hurray, I finished everything, I got free! " I went to the Hermitage"- it means that I could not get there for a long time, and finally I went, what happiness!

After you learn the species pairs and do the training exercises, you will no longer feel insecure using the verb species. And our professional teachers of Russian as a foreign language will be happy to help you make the process of learning Russian fun and effective. On our site you can choose a teacher and order a free trial lesson with him.

Good afternoon, dear student! Today we will look at the types of verbs. Very often my students ask themselves why there are so many different verbs in Russian, how to determine their tense, and why some verbs are used with prefixes and some without. To understand all these issues, let's look at the perfect and imperfect verbs.

You will find the form of imperfective verbs in the dictionary, the verb in this case denotes an action, and already from this form the verbs of the perfect form are formed. It should be noted that there are a lot of these methods, here are some of them:

With help prefixes, compare:

Imperfect species	Perfect view
Read To read	Read Has red
Write To write	Write Has written
Prepare	Cook Has cooked
Buy To buy	Buy Has bought

Please note that we have an exception word, which is formed in perfect form without the prefix - this is the verb "Buy". In its imperfect form, this verb is used with the prefix -po.

Through various suffixes:

So, if we want to say that the action takes place regularly, we need an imperfective verb. If the action happened 1 time at some point or day / hour, etc. and we know about its result, then we are dealing with a perfect verb. Such verbs answer the question " what to do?"

If we are talking about repetitive actions, then we not only use imperfective verbs that answer the question " what to do? ", but we also use various additional information in the face of adverbs, which just show this repetition. For example,

Anastasia cannot cook ( what to do?), she's cooking seldom... Anastasiya cannot cooking, she cooks rare.

I bought (what made?) beautiful dress, it is for me very good! (result visible) I bought a new dress, it suits me much.

In order to correctly determine the type of a verb, you can remember some adverbs that will help you decide correctly whether a particular verb belongs to a certain type:

Imperfect species
What are they doing? When? How often?

1. Nikita watches the film Every morning / evening / day, regularly, often, rarely, sometimes, usually.
2. Vitaly buys newspapers
3. We play volleyball

Perfect view
What did they do? When?

1. Nikita watched the movie "Titanic" Yesterday, in the evening, in the morning, today, once, on Friday, 2 days ago, already, not yet.
2. Vitaly bought the newspaper "Izvestia"
3. We played volleyball very well

From these examples it can be seen that adverbial words can greatly facilitate the definition of a particular type of verb, the main thing is to learn the questions and remember these words. To practice, correct these sentences by giving the correct verbs to the verbs. The sentences are written with errors:

I finished my porridge and went for a walk.
The students lingered at the university, but still mastered the material.
She revised the report for a very long time.
Tanya cried a lot and did not calm down in any way.
The children laughed a lot and the teacher decided to play with them more.

Rememberplease, that imperfective verbs have 3 forms: past, present and future:

Perfective verbs have only 2 tense forms: past and future

Watched and will watch (What have they done and what will they do?)

The past tense changes in numbers:

He ran (singular) and ran (plural) He ran and they ran.