The history of soap. How the first soap appeared

Soap structure, its properties

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids (Scheme 1), which hydrolyze in an aqueous solution to form acid and alkali.

General formula of solid soap:

Salts formed by strong alkali metal bases and weak carboxylic acids undergo hydrolysis:

The resulting alkali emulsifies, partially decomposes fats and thus releases dirt adhering to the fabric. Carboxylic acids form foam with water, which traps dirt particles. Potassium salts are better soluble in water than sodium salts and therefore have a stronger detergent property.

The hydrophobic part of the soap penetrates into the hydrophobic contaminant, as a result, the surface of each contaminant particle is surrounded by a shell of hydrophilic groups. They interact with polar water molecules. Thanks to this, the ions of the detergent, together with the contamination, are detached from the surface of the fabric and pass into the aqueous medium. This is how the contaminated surface is cleaned with a detergent.

Soap production consists of two stages: chemical and mechanical. At the first stage (soap boiling), an aqueous solution of sodium (less often potassium) salts, fatty acids or their substitutes is obtained.

Obtaining higher carboxylic acids by cracking and oxidation of petroleum products:

Obtaining sodium salts:

FROM n H m COOH + NaOH \u003d C n H m COONa + H 2 O.

The soap boiling is finished by treating the soap solution (soap glue) with an excess of alkali or sodium chloride solution. As a result, a concentrated layer of soap, called the core, floats to the surface of the solution. The resulting soap is called sound, and the process of its separation from the solution is called salting out or salting out.

Mechanical processing consists of cooling and drying, grinding, finishing and packaging of finished products.

As a result of the soap-making process, we get a wide variety of products that you can familiarize yourself with.

The production of laundry soap ends at the salting-out stage, while the soap is purified from protein, coloring and mechanical impurities. The production of toilet soap goes through all stages of mechanical processing. The most important of these is grinding, i.e. transferring sound soap to a solution by boiling with hot water and salting out again. In this case, the soap is extremely clean and light.

Washing powders can:

Irritating to the respiratory tract;

Stimulate the penetration of toxic substances into the skin;

Cause allergies and skin dermatitis.

In all these cases, it is necessary to switch to using soap, the only drawback of which is that it dries out the skin.

If the soap was cooked from animal or vegetable fats, then after separation of the core, the glycerin formed during saponification is released from the solution, which is widely used: in the production of explosives and polymer resins, as a softener for fabric and skin, in the manufacture of perfumery, cosmetic and medical preparations, in production of confectionery.

In the production of soap, naphthenic acids are used, which are released during the refining of petroleum products (gasoline, kerosene). For this purpose, petroleum products are treated with sodium hydroxide solution and an aqueous solution of sodium salts of naphthenic acids is obtained. This solution is evaporated and treated with table salt, as a result of which an oily mass of dark color - mylonoft - floats to the surface of the solution. To clean mylonft, it is treated with sulfuric acid. This water-insoluble product is called asidol or asidol-mylonft. Soap is made directly from asidol.

Soap has been used by mankind since time immemorial: the history of soap making is at least six thousand years old. At the time of Homer, soap was not yet known. The ancient Greeks cleansed the body with sand - especially fine sand, brought from the banks of the Nile. The ancient Egyptians washed themselves with a beeswax paste dissolved in water. For a long time, wood ash was used for washing.

The honor of the invention of soap is attributed to several ancient peoples at once. The Roman scientist and politician Pliny the Elder argued that mankind owes its acquaintance with detergents not to highly civilized Egyptians, and not to resourceful Greeks or Babylonians, but to wild Gallic tribes, with whom the Romans "got to know better" at the turn of our era.

According to the historian, the Gauls made some kind of miraculous ointment from bacon and ash of a beech tree, which was used to cleanse and dye hair, as well as to treat skin diseases. Colored the remedy - red paint - was obtained from clay. They smeared their long hair with vegetable oil to which they added dye. If water was added to this mixture, a thick foam was formed, which cleanly washed the hair.

In the second century, this "ointment" was used to wash hands, face and body in the Roman provinces. The ancient Romans added ashes of sea plants to this mixture, and real high-quality soap came out. And before that, the ancient peoples had to "get out", whoever was lucky enough: someone used ash brewed with boiling water for washing, and someone - the juice of soapwort, a plant that was famous for its ability to foam in water.

However, recent discoveries of scientists do not coincide with this version. Not so long ago, a detailed description of the soap-making process was found on Sumerian clay tablets, dated back to 2500 BC. The method was based on a mixture of wood ash and water, which was boiled and fat was melted in it, obtaining a soap solution.

Another version of scientists says that soap was invented by the Romans. According to legend, the very word soap (in English - soap) was formed from the name of Mount Sapo, where sacrifices to the gods took place. A mixture of melted animal fat and wood ash of the sacrificial fire was washed away by rain into the clay soil of the banks of the Tiber River. Women who washed linen there noticed that thanks to this mixture, clothes are washed much easier.

So, gradually they began to use the "gift of the gods" not only for washing clothes, but also for washing the body. By the way, the first soap shops were also discovered by archaeologists on the territory of Ancient Rome, or more precisely, among the ruins of the famous Pompeii. During archaeological excavations in Pompeii, the premises of a soap factory were found. Soap at that time was semi-liquid.

Soap has long been a luxury item and was valued along with expensive medicines and potions. But even wealthy people could not afford to wash their clothes. For this, different clays and plants were used. Laundry was difficult, and most often men did it. So, the controversy about who mankind owes the invention of soap is still not completed.

Nevertheless, it is known that the production of detergents was put on stream in medieval Italy. A hundred years later, the secrets of this craft reached Spain, and from the 11th century Marseille, then Venice, became the center of soap making. Only at the end of the XIV century did Marseilles soap give way to Venetian soap in international trade. In the 15th century in Italy, in Sevon, the first industrial production of solid soap began. At the same time, fats were combined not with ash, but with natural soda ash. This significantly reduced the cost of soap, and, consequently, transferred soap making from the category of handicraft production to manufacture.

True, one cannot say that the medieval inhabitants of European countries abused cleanliness: only representatives of the first two layers used soap - nobles and priests, and even then not all of them. Fashion for purity was brought to Europe by knights who visited the Arab countries during the Crusades. That is why from the XIII century the production of detergents began to flourish, first in France, and then in England. The business of soap making was taken with excessive seriousness.

When this craft was learned in England, King Henry IV even passed a law that forbade the soap-maker from spending the night under the same roof with other artisans: a method of soap-making kept secret. But on a large scale, soap making developed only after the development of industrial soap production.

Beginning in the XIV century, soap shops began to appear in Germany. Beef, lamb, lamb, pork, horse lard, bone, whale and fish oils, waste of fats from various industries were used to make soap. Vegetable oils were also added - linseed and cottonseed.

In Western Europe, the craft of soap making was finally formed only by the end of the 17th century. An important the geographical factor played a role in the development of soap making. The ingredients for making the soap varied by region. In the north, animal fat was used to make soap, and in the south, olive oil was used, which made the soap excellent quality.

As for Russia, here the secrets of soap making were inherited from Byzantium, and their own soap makers appeared only in the 15th century. It is known that Gavrila Ondreev started in Tver "a soap cookery with a soap cauldron and a whole lot"; there was a soap row in Moscow. The industrial production of soap was established under Peter.

In the 18th century, the factory of the city of Shuya became famous for its soap. Even the city's coat of arms depicts a bar of soap. The soap of the Lodygin factory was very famous, it was considered the best, after the Italian one. It was cooked in cow, almond oil - white and colored, with and without perfume. They also offered tar soap - "from the animal twigs".

Craftsmen learned how to make soap from potash and animal fats. Thus, the production of this much-needed product in everyday life was established in every home. The number of small soap-making workshops was expanding, especially since Russia had all the resources necessary for this, and first of all, wood, since ash was the basis of potash.

Potash became one of the main export products, leading to massive deforestation. By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, the question of finding a cheaper substitute for potash arose. The problem was solved in 1852 when the French chemist Nicholas Lebman was able to get soda from table salt. This excellent alkaline material has replaced potash.

Due to the special economic conditions, the first soap factories began to appear in Russia only in the 18th century. At that time, two were known in Moscow: in the Novinskaya and Presnenskaya parts. By 1853, in the Moscow province, their number had grown to eight. Numerous cloth, cotton and dyeing factories became consumers of soap factories. In 1839, at the highest request of Emperor Nicholas I, a Union was founded for the production of olein and soap.

The famous Moscow perfumery factory Volya was founded in 1843 by the Frenchman Alphonse Ralle. The factory was then called "Ralle and Co" and produced soap, powder, etc.

Children are very fond of soap in an unusual form: vegetables, fruits, animals. It turns out that such a fancy soap was produced already in the 19th century. Brocard's factory made it in the form of cucumbers. The soap looked so much like a real vegetable that it was hard for the buyer to resist a fun purchase.

The founder of the factory, Henrikh Afanasievich Brocard, was the king of perfumery in Russia, and he started his business from scratch. The original equipment of his factory consisted of three boilers, a wood-burning stove and a stone mortar. At first he made cheap, penny soap, but the trade went so vividly that soon Brocard began to produce expensive perfumes, colognes and soap. the factory has largely replaced manual work.

At the beginning of the 20th century, soap making acquired an industrial character almost everywhere. The cost of industrially brewed soap became more and more affordable for consumers, and gradually, home soap production became rare. In recent years, soap as a cosmetic product of mass use is increasingly used in liquid form.

Many customers are happy to buy soap that does not sink in water. It kept afloat well due to the air cavity inside the soap bar.

Modern detergents have replaced laundry soap into the background. Despite this, it remains one of the economical cleaning agents. It is used not only for washing, but also for cleaning plumbing fixtures. It is important to know what the laundry soap is made of. Vegetable oils and fats are used as raw materials. Soap is a natural product as it does not contain synthetic substances, fragrances or fragrances.

Some people have a false idea that laundry soap is made from dogs. If we omit the moral side and look at it only from the technical point of view, with a minimum amount of fat, the process becomes unprofitable, and in terms of its composition it is in no way suitable for soap making.

What was the laundry soap made of in the USSR? For this, sodium salt and waste fatty acids were used. A piece of this versatile detergent could be found in every home.

Benefits of laundry soap

• Efficiency.
• An environmentally friendly product derived from natural fatty acids and alkalis.
• Ideal hygiene product.
• Hypoallergenic agent.

Soap can be used to remove oil paint, fuel oil, old dirt. The product has excellent antimicrobial and disinfectant properties. Environmentally friendly soap allows you to wash products, handle combs and toothbrushes.

It is indispensable for household use. The soap foam cleans the fabric well from organic compounds. This detergent is used for cleaning children's clothes, washing dishes. It removes fat deposits well.

As a home remedy for disease prevention, laundry soap is used to prevent colds. It is recommended to treat acne and other growths on the skin with a soapy composition, to use it to treat suppuration and fungal diseases, as well as to treat places of sun and chemical burns. In addition to eliminating increased oily skin, soap removes dandruff well.

It must be remembered that soap contains a slight excess of alkali, which can wash away not only excess, but also necessary fat. In order not to harm the body, when using soap, the correct application and dosage are necessary.

Soap composition

What laundry soap is made of depends on many factors. The basis is fats, oils, fatty acids and fat-containing waste products, which are saponified with sodium or potassium alkali.

The following components are used as raw materials.

1. Vegetable oils: palm, palm kernel, sunflower.
2. Animal fats: beef, pork, lamb, or mixtures thereof.
3. Salomas. The production process consists in saturating the oil with hydrogen atoms at a temperature of 200-300 0 С in the presence of nickel or platinum catalysts. In this case, fats become solid due to the addition of hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fatty acids in the places of double bonds.
4. Fatty acids: oleic (unsaturated), stearic and palmitic (limit). They are isolated from fats, in which they are included in different proportions.
5. Synthetic fatty acids - FFA. Produced by blowing paraffin heated to 105-120 0 C with air, adding manganese compounds as a catalyst. Mixtures of saturated monocarboxylic acids with impurities are obtained from petrochemical raw materials. The production of FFA at domestic enterprises has been closed since 2001 due to unprofitable technologies, poor product quality and a large amount of toxic wastewater.
6. Products for cleaning fats and oils with alkali solutions - soap stocks. With their low quality, the soap has an unpleasant odor and has a dark color.

What the laundry soap is made of, the composition, determines the process technology. You must have an understanding of the properties of the main product. In any case, it must meet the requirements of GOST 30266-95.

Fats and their properties

Fats are esters of glycerol and higher carboxylic acids. They are of plant and animal origin. The former are liquid, with the exception of palm and coconut oils. Most of them are dominated by unsaturated acids based on ethylene bonds. All natural fats are complex mixtures of glycerides. Animal fat is a solid substance (tallow) containing mostly saturated acids without double bonds.

Fat properties:

• density - 0.9-0.98 g / cm 3;
• insolubility in water;
• form water emulsions with alkali and protein;
• differ in melting point;
• decomposition on heating;
• colorless, tasteless and odorless in the absence of impurities.

Application of fats

The main purpose of vegetable oils and fats is to eat. In addition, higher carboxylic acids, glycerin, soap, drying oil, varnishes, paints, linoleum, and lubricants are obtained from them.

How is laundry soap made in production? To do this, use unsuitable fats and technical fat.

Saponification of fats

In technology, fats are saponified in boilers by heating with alkalis or sulfuric acid.

Superheated steam and catalysts are used to speed up the processes. Of the latter, the most common is a mixture of sulfonic acids, which form emulsions from fats, increasing the surface of their contact with the saponification solution.

When fats are decomposed by sodium or potassium alkali, their salts (soaps) and glycerin are formed. The amount of reagent required for complete saponification of the oil is determined through the saponification coefficient according to the tables.

Example

Determine the amount of alkali required for saponification of 1000 g of pork fat.

The weight of the oil should be multiplied by the saponification factor: 1000 g × 0.141 \u003d 141 g.

In industry, alkali is used in the form of a 40% solution. For the saponification reaction, the amount of sodium alkali solution will be required: 141 / 0.4 \u003d 352.5 g. If potassium alkali is used, then it will need 1000 g × 0.198 / 0.4 \u003d 495 g.

Laundry soap is made from waste of vegetable or animal oils, the number of saponification of which can be in a certain range. Upon receipt of soap, first, an analysis is made for the content of free alkali in the product, and then the required amount of the missing component is added, and the reaction is brought to an end.

The degree of unsaturation of fats is characterized by the iodine number: the lower it is, the harder the soap is (below 55) and the longer it is stored.

Saponification of fatty acids

To the raw materials from which the laundry soap is made, a suitable substance is selected for the reaction. Unlike fats, fatty acids are easily saponified with soda ash and potassium carbonate when boiled in an open kettle. It should be borne in mind that the product contains up to 7% unsplit fat. In this regard, at the end of cooking, a little alkali is added to saponify it.

If we raise the question of what laundry soap is made of now, then in an industrial environment it is easiest to use fatty acids. At the same time, the process is less energy-consuming, and soda ash can be used instead of expensive alkali.

The process of making soap from fatty acids is accelerated by 2 times. They are introduced in small portions into a solution of soda ash, so that the release of foam formed by the emitted carbon dioxide does not occur.

If the raw material is of sufficiently high quality, it is saponified in a direct way in a boiler, bringing the amount of saponified product to 40-47%. Then the soap is cooled and cut into pieces.

Low-grade fatty acids are salted out during cooking, separating the soap core. At the same time, it is purified and a quality product with a higher concentration is obtained.

The bar of soap has a fatty acid content of 64 to 72%. Many are interested in what makes 72 laundry soap, which is stored longer and has high detergent properties.

The technology for its production is no different from others, only salting out is done at least 2 times in order to obtain a sufficiently high concentration of saponified fatty acids.

Conclusion

Laundry soap is still used today, despite the large selection of detergents. It has properties not found in competing products. The main advantage is what the laundry soap is made of - from natural products. The alkaline reaction (pH 11-12) allows the removal of difficult contaminants.

In everyday life, we are surrounded by a lot of things to which we are so accustomed that we do not think about their origin.

How often, while washing our hands, we ask ourselves the question: "Where did the soap come from?"

And really, what is soap? Where did it first appear? How did our ancestors do it?

So, soap is a washing mass dissolving in water, obtained by combining fats and alkalis, used as a cosmetic product for cleansing and caring for the skin, or as a detergent for household chemicals. This definition is given to us by Wikipedia.

The word "soap" comes from the Latin "sapo", the English transformed into soap, the Italians - sapone, the French - savon.

There are several versions of the appearance of soap.

According to one of them, the first mentions of “soap solution” were confirmed on clay tablets dated from 2500 to 2200 BC. BC e., found by archaeologists during excavations in Mesopotamia. They contain a method of preparing a soap solution by mixing wood ash with water, boiling this mixture and dissolving fat in it. However, Egyptian archaeologists claim that soap production began around 6,000 years ago. During excavations in the Nile Delta, papyri were found, which contain recipes for making soap by heating animal or vegetable fats along with alkaline salts.

According to another version, the invention of soap is attributed to the ancient Romans. On Mount Sapo, a ritual of sacrifice to the gods was performed. After the sacrifice was burned, animal fat, mixing with ash, was washed off by rain into the Tiber River. After washing in this river, the laundry became clean much faster. Confirmation of this fact can be found in the treatise of the Roman writer and scholar Pliny the Elder "Natural History".

There is another curious version, according to which, the composition for washing was invented by the Gallic tribes. From the ash of beech wood and lard, they prepared an ointment, which they used to wash and dye their hair. When combined with water, it turned into a thick lather. Later, the Romans, after the conquest of the Gallic tribes in the II century AD. e., began to use this ointment when washing hands, face and body. And by adding the ash of sea plants to it, we got real high-quality soap.

Soap has long been invented, but many peoples continue to use lye, bean flour, pumice stone, and clay for washing and washing. And why?

The first reason: soap is quite an expensive pleasure that even wealthy people could not afford. And Scythian women made washing powder from cypress and cedar wood, which was mixed with water and incense. The whole body was rubbed with the resulting mass, which had a delicate delicate aroma. After that, the solution was removed with special scrapers, and the skin became clean and smooth.

The second reason: the persecution of the Inquisition, which raged in the Middle Ages. It was considered seditious to pay special attention to one's own sinful flesh.

But nevertheless, the fashion for cleanliness moved to Europe along with the medieval knights who brought soap as a trophy from the Crusades to the Arab countries. The art of soap making was transferred from the Arabs to Spain. Here, on the Mediterranean coast, people have learned how to make a solid and beautiful soap by adding olive oil and sea plant ash. Alicante, Carthage, Sevilla, Venice became famous centers of soap making.

In the 15th century in Savona (Italy), soap was first produced industrially. Instead of ash, they used natural soda ash, which led to a decrease in the cost of soap.

Only in 1808 did the soap get its modern composition. It was brought up by the French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul at the request of the owners of a textile factory.

I would especially like to tell you about the history of the development of soap making in Russia.

Since ancient times in Russia, people had the habit of regularly going to the bathhouse, where they took lye with them. even in the pre-Petrine era from potash and animal fats. Whole villages were engaged in "potash business": the felled trees were burned in boilers right in the forest. Lye was made from ash, which was evaporated to obtain potash. Soap began to be made not only by artisans, but also by ordinary people at home. The soap makers appeared only in the 15th century. The Valdai and Kostroma masters were especially popular.

The industrial production of soap was established under Peter I.

In the 18th century, soap made at a factory in the city of Shuya was famous throughout the country - this is evidenced by the bar of soap located on the coat of arms of this city. It was cooked in almond and cow oil, with and without perfume, white and colored. This soap was considered the best after the Italian one.

And at the famous Moscow perfume factory, figured soap was made.

Currently, the soap making process has not undergone significant changes. But in its production they began to use artificially created components. The only good news is that making soap at home is back in fashion.

Sometimes various oils and glycerin are added to the soap to give a certain consistency, color, density and qualities.

It should not be confused with soap products and synthetic detergents, which are made on the basis of synthetic surfactants, which can be produced from vegetable fats (sodium lauryl sulfate) or from products of chemical processing of petroleum - alkylbenzenesulfonate, etc.

History

Soap was first made in ancient civilizations such as Sumer and Babylon (about 2800 BC). A description of the soap production technology was found in Mesopotamia on clay tablets dating back to around 2200 BC. e. [ ]

The ancient Egyptians used soda for hygiene. Also, the Ebers papyrus (1550 BC) mentions a certain soap-like substance from animals (goose) and vegetable fats with the addition of lead (galena extract) or sodium carbonate (extracted from the Nile).

Similar detergents were widely used in ancient Rome, where the first mention of soap (Latin sapo, then passed into many Romance languages) by Pliny the Elder in Natural History. In ancient Russian literature, soap is mentioned in Domostroy (16th century).

It has been proven that oils of biological origin are good at removing impurities from the skin surface. This is easily noticed when eating fatty foods with your hands, such as meat fried over a fire. While in southern latitudes it was easier to use vegetable oil for washing, in northern latitudes it could be difficult due to the high cost of raw materials. Melted animal fat is much easier to obtain in the north. Considering that an open fire was often used for heating, mixing the melted fat with ash or sand was a matter of time. In the future, it was only necessary to select the optimal composition of fats to obtain a homogeneous mixture.

In 1808, the French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul (1786-1889), at the request of the owners of a textile factory, established the composition of the soap. As a result of the analysis, it turned out that soap is a mixture of sodium salts of higher fatty (carboxylic) acids.

One of the options for the chemical composition of solid soap - C 17 H 35 COONa (liquid - C 17 H 35 COOK).

Manufacturing technology

Animal and vegetable fats, fat substitutes (synthetic fatty acids, rosin, naphthenic acids, tall oil) can be used as raw materials for obtaining the main component of soap.

Obtaining soap is based on the saponification reaction - the hydrolysis of fatty acid esters (in particular, fats) with alkalis, which results in the formation of alkali metal salts and alcohols.

In special containers (digesters), heated fats are saponified with caustic alkali (usually sodium hydroxide). As a result of the reaction in the digesters, a homogeneous viscous liquid is formed, which thickens upon cooling - soap glueconsisting of soap and glycerin. The fatty acid content of soap made directly from soap glue is usually 40-60%. Such a product is called “ adhesive soap". The method of producing adhesive soap is usually called the "direct method".

The "indirect method" of obtaining soap consists in the further processing of soap glue, which is subjected to salting - processing with electrolytes (solutions of caustic alkali or sodium chloride), as a result, liquid stratification occurs: the upper layer, or soap corecontains at least 60% fatty acids; bottom layer - soap lye, an electrolyte solution with a high content of glycerin (also contains contaminants contained in the feedstock). The soap obtained as a result of the indirect method is called “ sound».

The highest grade of soap - sawed, obtained by grinding dried sound soap on rollers pillary cars. At the same time, the content of fatty acids in the final product increases to 72-74%, the structure of the soap improves, its resistance to drying out, rancidity and high temperatures during storage.

When caustic soda is used as alkali, solid sodium soap is obtained. Mild or even liquid potassium soaps are formed when potassium hydroxide is applied.

Types of solid soaps

Laundry soap

When sodium soap is cooled, laundry soap is obtained. Solid soap contains 40-72% of the basic substance, 0.1-0.2% of free alkali, 1-2% of free carbonates of Na or K, 0.5-1.5% of water-insoluble residue.

As a thickener

In technology, calcium and lithium soaps are widely used as a thickener for lubricants. So, the well-known grease grease is a petroleum oil thickened with calcium soap, and lithol is the same oil thickened with lithium soap (lithium salt of stearic acid).

Handmade soap

Soap is available in different colors

Soap can be produced manually in several ways. At the same time, essential oils, grated nuts, ground coffee, coconut oil, etc., fragrances and flavors can be added to it.

One way is to grind and melt ready-made soap (for example, baby soap). A piece of soap is crushed on a grater or knife, diluted with water or other desired liquid (for example, herbal decoctions), then the whole mass is melted in a water bath. When the mass becomes homogeneous, it is removed from the heat and essential oils and other ingredients are added as desired. The difficulty of this method lies in the fact that the ready-made soap used by the soap-maker is rather refractory and the process of its digestion is long. This method is used by beginners in soap making, since it does not require significant financial costs.

Handmade soap can also be made from a specialty soap base available from specialized stores. The base can also be melted in a water bath or in the microwave. Unlike industrially obtained soap, handmade soap lathers worse, since the ingredients in the soap base are more gentle and soft. For the same reason, it is used up faster than industrial soap of the same weight.

Soap made from directly alkali and fats by hand requires the soapmaker to comply with safety precautions when working with alkali. On the other hand, full control over the soap making process allows the soap maker to create exactly the product he needs. For the manufacture of solid soap, alkali NaOH (sodium hydroxide), fatty oils and water are used. To make the soap hard enough, with good lather and not dry the skin, it is necessary to choose the right oils and carefully calculate how much alkali and water is required to saponify the selected amount of oils, for this, a soap calculator is used. The soap should contain:

• oils that make soap solid (for example, palm oil, cocoa, coconut, olive, shea, cupuacu, murumuru, etc.) - up to 65%;
• foaming and foam-stabilizing oils (coconut, babassu, palm kernel, castor (castor oil is not foaming, but only foam-stabilizing)) - up to 35%,
• oils that care for the skin, which provide the soap with good conditioning properties, soften its effect on the skin - up to 25% (for example, avocado, almond, mango, macadamia, grape seed, etc.).

An ancient method is cooking soap from scrap materials (using ashes of non-resinous tree species, animal fat), a mixture of which is boiled over an open fire.

Reuse of remnants

Liquid soap

It is a viscous liquid in consistency. In terms of chemical composition, most types of liquid soaps differ markedly from solid soaps and are closer to shampoos, in particular, they include synthetic surfactants, as well as skin softeners and fragrances. Liquid soap is used as a detergent, for washing hands, as a body care gel and as an antibacterial agent. Liquid soap is easy to make with your own hands.

Dispensers

A dispenser is a device that allows you to use solid bar (bar) soap with maximum comfort and efficiency. The design of the device is simple: