Special psychology Kuznetsov read. Fundamentals of Special Psychology: A Study Guide (7th Edition, Stereotypical)
Fundamentals of special psychology: Proc. allowance for students. avg. ped. textbook institutions / L. V. Kuznetsova, L. I. Peresleni, L. I. Solntseva and others; Ed. L. V. Kuznetsova. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002. - 480 p.
Psychological commandments of the future teacher Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of pedagogical workers for correctional educational activities
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
1.3. Modern ideas about normal and deviant development
1.4. Factors of human mental development
Mechanisms of genetic influences Somatic factor Brain damage index
Mechanisms of social influences in the prenatal and natal periods of child development Mechanisms of social influences in the period of individual development
1.5. Types of deviant development (dysontogeny) Age relatedness of dysontogeny Etiology of disorders
The concept of primary and secondary developmental defects. The doctrine of compensation The main types of mental dysontogenesis
1.6. General patterns of deviant development
Appendix to Section 1
Section II. Mental development in dysontogeny by type of retardation Chapter 1. Psychology of a mentally retarded child 1.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of mentally retarded children 1.2. Historical digression
1.3. Causes of mental retardation. Classification according to severity and etiopathogenetic principle
1.4.
1.5. emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of activity
Chapter 2
2.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with mild deviations in mental development
2.2. Historical digression
2.3. Causes and mechanisms of mild deviations. Classification according to severity and etiopathogenetic principle
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere of children with mental retardation
2.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
2.6. Features of the activity of children with mild deviations in psychophysical development
2.7. Questions of psychological diagnostics and correction in dysontogenies by the type of retardation and maturation dysfunction Control questions and tasks Literature
Appendix to Section II
Section III. Mental development in deficient-type dysontogenies Chapter 1. Psychology of persons with hearing impairments (audiopsychology)
1.1. The subject and tasks of deaf psychology
1.2. Historical digression
1.Z. Causes of hearing loss. Psychological and pedagogical classification of hearing disorders in children
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere in children with hearing impairments
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of activity
1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for hearing impairment in children Control questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 2. Psychology of persons with visual impairment (tiflopsychology)
2.1. The subject and tasks of tiflopsychology
2.2. Historical digression
2.3. Causes of visual impairment. Classification of visual dysfunction in children
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
2.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
2.6. Features of activity
2.7. Psychological diagnosis of children with visual impairments and correction of these disorders Control questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 3. Psychology of children with speech disorders (logopsychology) Z.1. The subject and tasks of logopsychology
3.2. Historical digression
3.3. Causes of primary speech disorders. Classifications of speech disorders
3.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
3.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
3.6. Features of activity
3.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in severe speech disorders in children Control questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 4. Psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
4.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with functional disorders musculoskeletal system
4.2. Historical digression
4.3. Specificity of motor development in children with cerebral palsy (ICP). The structure of the violation. Forms of cerebral palsy
4.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
4.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
4.6. Features of activity
4.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with dysfunctions of the musculoskeletal system and correction of these disorders Control questions and tasks Literature
Section IV. Mental development in asynchrony with a predominance of disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior
Chapter 1. Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome
1.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with RDA
1.2. Historical digression
1.3. Causes and mechanisms of RDA. Psychological essence of RDA - classification of conditions according to severity
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of activity
1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in early childhood autism
Control questions and tasks Literature
Chapter 2
2.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with a disharmonic personality
2.2. Historical digression
2.3. Causes of disharmonic development. Typology of pathological characters
2.4. Diagnosis and correction of disharmonic development
Control questions and tasks Literature
Annex to Section IV
Section V. Psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.2. Historical digression
5.3. Causes of complex developmental disorders. Approaches to the classification of children with complex developmental disorders
5.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
5.5. personality traits and emotional-volitional sphere
5. 6. Features of activity 5.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in complex developmental disorders Test questions and tasks Main literature
Section VI. Primary detection of deviations in development (basics of psychological diagnostics)
6.1. Primary identification of children with developmental disabilities using pedagogical observation
6.2. General issues of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics
Control questions and tasks Literature
Appendix to Section VI
Section VII. Methods for the prevention and correction of secondary deviations in the mental development of children with special educational needs
7.1. General methodological issues of prevention and correction
7.2. Psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention and correction of secondary deviations
7.3. Methods of indirect correction and prevention of personal underdevelopment in preschool age Work with parents
Increasing the psychological competence of preschool educators Control questions and tasks Literature
Appendix to Section II
The textbook outlines the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, methodological issues of special psychology,
associated with the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, the problems of organizing special psychological assistance and psycho-correctional work in the education system, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" of children with various deviations in psychophysical development are given
If you don't see immediate results
good or bad, be patient and watch
Deepak Chopra
Psychological commandments of the future teacher
Give up stereotypes and accept a person as he is.
Believe that every person has a source of positive development and growth.
Learn to separate individual actions of a person from his whole personality.
Do not evaluate, do not judge, avoid direct advice and moralizing.
Try to understand the other person, develop active empathic listening.
Be yourself, feel free to express your feelings, but do it in a non-offensive way for others.
Master the knowledge and skills that will help you be confident in your professional competence: “Do the right thing. And let it be.”
Do not let your personal and professional dignity be humiliated.
Develop the skills of cooperation, dialogic communication with other people, regardless of their age, experience, social status and professional status.
Don't burn up today's energy by experiencing a past disaster or a prospective one: "The day of man's salvation is today!"
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of pedagogical workers for correctional and educational activities
Knowledge of the psychological characteristics of children with various developmental disabilities (FOOTNOTE: Until recently, the term "abnormal children" was the most used; currently, draft state educational standards have appeared using the term "persons with disabilities" The search for new terms is associated with general humanization education.) in both domestic and foreign pedagogy has always been given great importance. K. D. Ushinsky wrote: “Before educating a person in all respects, he must be known in all respects.” Around the world, a growing number
children who need special assistance from doctors, psychologists, teachers and social workers. A full analysis of the causes of adverse trends in both somatic and psychological health and their social consequences can be given only after a number of years. However, even now no one doubts that it is necessary to raise the general level of literacy in the field of special psychology and pedagogy among all specialists dealing with children (including parents, teachers of preschool institutions of all kinds, teachers, practical educational psychologists, medical workers).
Preschool age requires special attention, when the body is very fragile and every day of delay in timely diagnosis and the beginning of recovery work threatens to turn into a tragedy. For example, with a correct and timely diagnosis, instead of deafness, a child may develop only a partial hearing loss (hard of hearing), or even if the degree of severity of the hearing defect persists, the child will be able to reach a more complete level of compensation and self-realization as a person.
This textbook is addressed primarily to students of pedagogical colleges and contains the necessary factual and illustrative material in accordance with the requirements of the state educational standard for training in the specialties: "Special Pedagogy in Special (Correctional) Educational Institutions" and "Correctional Pedagogy in Primary Education".
Educators of preschool institutions of all kinds, elementary school teachers meet with children with various disabilities (especially mild deviations in psychophysical and social development), often before special teachers and special psychologists. It is they who play a decisive role in the primary identification of children in need of in-depth psychological and pedagogical diagnostics and correction. It is no coincidence that the Concept of Correctional Developmental Education says: “... You can’t train just a teacher or just a psychologist. It should be a teacher-psychologist, psychologist, teacher-speech therapist, kindergarten teacher teacher. Kindergartens and schools need specialists who have basic knowledge in the field of related sciences, who are well versed in issues of correctional pedagogy, psychology, speech therapy, sociology ”(FOOTNOTE: Compensatory education in Russia: Collection of current regulatory documents and teaching materials. - M., 1997. - S. 33.).
The book reflects: the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, its connections with other sciences and branches of psychological science, methodological issues of special psychology related to the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" of children with various deviations in psychophysical development. In addition, the issues of organizing special psychological assistance in the education system and ways of its implementation are considered; the basic principles of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of deviant development and issues of psycho-correctional work within the framework of the professional competence of a future specialist.
The manual consists of an introduction and seven chapters.
Section I is devoted to general issues of special psychology, such as the history of the formation of special psychology and the characteristics of its current state, clinical symptoms, and the classification of the main types of dysontogenesis.
Sections IV-V give characteristics of children with one or another type of dysontogenetic development, for example, section II is devoted to the mental development of children with dysontogenesis by the type of retardation, section III is devoted to mental development in deficient type dysontogenesis, etc.
the subject and tasks of the corresponding section of special psychology;
the causes of this type of dysontogenesis;
features of cognitive activity;
personality traits;
features of activity;
questions of psychological diagnostics and correction.
Special sections are devoted to the issues of primary detection of developmental disorders (section VI) and methods of prevention and correction (section VII).
The control questions that complete the presentation of each topic allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material; a list of literature recommended for additional study in this course is also offered.
The most important points are illustrated by excerpts from original texts by eminent scholars and practitioners. Some sections have applications where normative documents are presented, as well as the simplest methods for the primary identification and correction of deficiencies in the development of children; both future special psychologists and future teachers will be able to use them in their practice.
Considering that the book is addressed primarily to students who will have to work with preschoolers and elementary school students, the material presented will mainly deal with the features of the mental development of children of this age.
Section I. General questions of special psychology
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
The emergence of special psychology (from the Greek specialis - special, peculiar) as an independent branch of psychological science and practice can be attributed to the 60s. XX century. Then she appeared in the list of scientific specialties of educational universities in the section "Psychology". However, this was only a formal consolidation of the formation of this peculiar branch of psychology that has been going on for many decades, which has absorbed the accumulated scientific achievements and practical experience - everything related to the study of phenomenology, mechanisms and conditions of human mental development under the influence of various groups of pathogenic factors, as well as patterns flow of compensatory and corrective processes.
Until that time, special psychology was an integral part of defectology - a complex science that includes both a versatile study of the causes and mechanisms
deviant development, as well as the development of evidence-based medical, psychological and pedagogical corrective actions in relation to children with various deficiencies in psychophysical and personal-social development (FOOTNOTE: “... More recently, the whole area of theoretical knowledge and scientific and practical work that we conventionally call the general name "defectology", was considered something like a minor pedagogy, like how medicine singles out minor surgery. All problems in this area were posed and solved as quantitative problems. In all fairness, M. Kruenegel states that the most common psychological methods for studying an abnormal child (A. Wiene's metric scale or G.I. Rossolimo's profile) are based on a purely quantitative concept of child development complicated by a defect (M. Kmnegel, 1926).These methods determine the degree of decrease in intelligence, but do not characterize the defect itself and the internal structure of the personality created by him. Following O. Lipmann, these methods can be called measurements, but not studies of giftedness, since they establish the degree, but not the type and type of giftedness (O. Lipmann, 1924).).
The same is true of other pedological methods of studying a handicapped child, not only psychological methods, but also covering other aspects of child development (anatomical and physiological). And here the scale, size, scale are the main categories of research, as if all the problems of defectology are problems of proportions, and the whole variety of phenomena studied by defectology is covered by a single “more-less” scheme. Counting and measuring in defectology began earlier than experimenting, observing, analyzing, dissecting and generalizing, describing and qualitatively determining.
Practical defectology also chose this easiest path of number and measure and tried to recognize itself as a minor pedagogy. If in theory the problem was reduced to a quantitatively limited, proportionally reduced development, then in practice, naturally, the idea of reduced and slow learning was put forward. In Germany, the same Kruenegel, and here A.S. Griboyedov rightly defend the idea: “It is necessary to revise both the curricula and the methods of work in our auxiliary schools” (A.S. Griboyedov. - M., 1926. - P. 98 ), since “the reduction of educational material and the lengthening of the time for its study”, i.e. purely quantitative features still constitute the characteristic difference of the special school.
The purely arithmetic conception of defectiveness is a characteristic feature of the obsolete, old defectology. The reaction against this quantitative approach to all problems of theory and practice is the most essential feature of modern defectology. The struggle of two defectological worldviews, two polar ideas, two principles is the living content of the beneficial crisis that this area of scientific knowledge is now experiencing.
The concept of defectiveness as a purely quantitative limitation of development is undoubtedly ideologically related to the peculiar theory of pedological preformism, according to which the extrauterine development of a child is reduced exclusively to a quantitative increase and an increase in organic and psychological functions. Defectology is now doing ideological work similar to that which pedagogy and child psychology once did when they defended the position that a child is not a small adult. Defectology is now fighting for the main thesis, in the defense of which it sees the only guarantee of its existence as a science, namely the thesis that says: a child whose development is complicated by a defect is not only less developed than his normal peers, but developed differently.
We will never get the psychology of a blind child by the method of subtraction if we subtract visual perception and everything connected with it from the psychology of a sighted child. Similarly, a deaf child is not a normal child minus hearing and speech. Pedology (FOOTNOTE: Pedology (from Greek pms -
child and logos - science) - a complex science of the child, which arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Founder - American psychologist S Hall. Such scientists as A.P. Nechaev, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, V.N. Myasishchev and others. In the 1930s. in Russia, pedology, which gave impetus to the development of child and educational psychology, but did not clearly define its specific subject of research and was carried away by quantitative methods for measuring intelligence, was closed by a decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (b) has long mastered the idea that the process of child development, if viewed from On the qualitative side, there is, in the words of V. Stern, a chain of metamorphoses (1922). Defectology is now acquiring a similar idea. Just as a child at each stage of development, in each of its phases, represents a qualitative originality, a specific structure of the organism and personality, so exactly a handicapped child represents a qualitatively different, unique type of development. As from oxygen and hydrogen, not a mixture of gases, but water arises, so, says R. Gürtler, the personality of a feeble-minded child is something qualitatively different than just the sum of underdeveloped functions and properties.
The specificity of the organic and psychological structure, the type of development and personality, and not quantitative proportions, distinguish the weak-minded child from the normal one. How long ago did pedology understand the full depth and truth of assimilation of many processes of child development to the transformation of a caterpillar into a chrysalis and a chrysalis into a butterfly? Now defectology, through the mouth of Gürtler, declares childhood dementia to be a special variety, a special type of development, and not a quantitative variant of the normal type. These, he says, are various organic forms, like a tadpole and a frog (R. Gurtler, 1927).
There is, in fact, a complete correspondence between the uniqueness of each age stage in the development of a child and the uniqueness of the various types of development. Just as the transition from crawling to an upright gait and from babbling to speech is a metamorphosis, a qualitative transformation of one form into another, so the speech of a deaf-mute child and the thinking of an imbecile are qualitatively different functions in comparison with the thinking and speech of normal children.
Only with the idea of qualitative originality (not exhausted by quantitative variations of individual elements) of those phenomena and processes that defectology studies, does it acquire a solid methodological basis for the first time, because no theory is possible if one proceeds exclusively from negative premises, just as no educational practice based on purely negative definitions and foundations. This idea is the methodological center of modern defectology; the relation to it determines the geometric place of any particular, concrete problem. With this idea, a system of positive problems, theoretical and practical, opens up before defectology; defectology becomes possible as a science, because it acquires a special, methodologically delimited object of study and cognition. On the basis of a purely quantitative concept of childhood defectiveness, only “pedagogical anarchy” is possible, in the words of B. Schmidt about medical pedagogy, only an eclectic, disparate summary of empirical data and techniques, but not a system of scientific knowledge.
However, it would be the greatest mistake to think that with the discovery of this idea, the methodological formulation of the new defectology is completed. On the contrary, it is just beginning. As soon as the possibility of a special kind of scientific knowledge is determined, a tendency to its philosophical substantiation immediately arises. The search for a philosophical foundation is an extremely characteristic feature of modern defectology and an indicator of its scientific maturity ... Defectology has its own, special, object of study; she must master it. The processes of child development studied by her represent an enormous variety of forms, an almost limitless number of different types. Science must master this originality and explain it, establish the cycles and metamorphoses of development, its disproportions and shifting centers, discover the laws of diversity. Further
practical problems arise: how to master the laws of this development. (Vygotsky L. S. The main problems of defectology // Collected works: In 6 volumes - M, 1982-1985. - T. 5. - P. 6-91.)
Special psychology can be defined as the psychology of special conditions that arise mainly in childhood and adolescence under the influence of various groups of factors (organic or functional nature) and manifest themselves in a slowdown or pronounced originality of the child's psychosocial development, making it difficult for him to adapt socially and psychologically, to be included in the educational space and further professional self-determination.
The focus of special psychology is children and adolescents with various deviations in mental, somatic, sensory, intellectual, personal and social development, as well as older people who have special needs for education See: Brief Philosophical Encyclopedia - M., 1994. - P. 311.), caused by health disorders.
The main goal of special psychological support in the education system is to identify, eliminate and prevent an imbalance between the processes of learning and development of children with disabilities in psychophysical development and their capabilities. Special psychology contains the knowledge that can serve as a methodological basis for creating conditions for optimal socio-psychological adaptation, including further professional self-determination of graduates of special educational institutions.
Special psychology as a direction of psychological science and practice is an intensively developing area that stands at the intersection of the humanities (philosophy, history, sociology, law, theology, etc.), natural sciences (biology, anatomy, genetics, physiology, medicine) and pedagogy. Together with the term "special psychology", the concept of "correctional (special) pedagogy" has entered into scientific use.
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
The most early formed both in theoretical and applied aspects were such areas of special psychology as the psychology of the mentally retarded (oligophrenopsychology), the psychology of the deaf (deaf psychology), and the psychology of the blind (tiflopsychology).
Currently, there is a tendency to revise clinical and psychological terms and replace them with psychological and pedagogical terms (instead of “psychology of the mentally retarded” and “oligophrenopsychology”, the terms “psychology of children with severe (persistent) deviations in intellectual development”, “psychology of children with underdevelopment of the cognitive sphere, etc. In addition to the above areas, modern special psychology includes: the psychology of children with mental retardation, the psychology of children with disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior, the psychology of children with impaired functions of the musculoskeletal system, the psychology of persons with disabilities speech, psychology of children with complex developmental disabilities.
In addition, more and more often in educational institutions there are children who experience difficulties in social and psychological adaptation and learning due to severe somatic diseases (blood diseases, respiratory diseases, various types of allergies, gastrointestinal and heart diseases, etc.), as well as in connection with the consequences of severe emotional experiences (post-traumatic stress disorder - PTSD), exceeding in its intensity or duration individual adaptive
opportunities of the child (children - witnesses or victims of violence, sudden loss of loved ones or separation from them, change of the usual cultural, historical and linguistic environment, etc.).
The steady increase in the number of combined developmental disorders, the increase in the number of children with psychogenic disorders, manifested in autism, aggressiveness, behavioral and activity disorders, anxiety-phobic disorders, distortions of socialization processes, significantly complicate and complicate the solution of correctional and educational problems both in general and in special education.
In fact, not only children attending special educational institutions need special psychological assistance, but also a significant number of children who are in preschool educational institutions of a general developmental type, as well as students of general schools. It should be recognized that at present, due to the intensification of integration processes in education, which often have a spontaneity, in the same class or preschool group there can be a variety of categories of children who were once classified by L.S. Vygotsky as “difficult”. These are children of “biological risk”, in whom deviations in behavior and various types of activity arise due to some organic defect or long-term chronic disease, and children of “social risk”, to whom, in addition to juvenile delinquents, children and adolescents with behavioral disorders currently time to legitimately take children from orphanages and shelters, children from families of refugees and internally displaced persons. The latter, being in difficult social conditions, often being psychosomatically weakened, find themselves in an educational institution in complete psychological isolation due to ethnic prejudice that occurs both among children and parents, and sometimes among educators.
A person with a deficiency in the function of any organ (for example, deaf or blind), suffering from mental underdevelopment, having physical deformities, has long attracted not only the idle curiosity of the inhabitants, but also the scientific and human interest of church ministers, anatomists, philosophers, teachers and writers.
The well-known novel by V. Hugo "The Man Who Laughs" describes all the tragedy and loneliness of a person who is unlike others. About the state of a person whose appearance evokes unworthy feelings in a crowd of onlookers, V. Hugo says: “To be ridiculous in appearance, when the soul is experiencing a tragedy, what can be more humiliating than such torment, what can cause great rage in a person?”
Even now, when the causes of most deviations in psychophysical development are known, the perception of people with certain developmental problems is influenced by the phenomenon of “faith in a just world” - a person has a kind of protective reaction to misfortunes: if they happen to someone then he deserves it. In special experiments (M. Lerner) it was shown that the more the victim suffers, the more antipathy she causes and the more the subjects tend to justify her torment. But if a person is not an indifferent observer, but can really help another, demonstrating his strength, competence, responsibility, in this case the level of positive perception of a person with anomalies increases.
The attitude towards children with various developmental disabilities bears the stamp of a long history of selfishness and selfishness of society, which was especially clearly manifested during the years of infanticide (FOOTNOTE: The period from antiquity to the 4th century AD, when mass infanticide was in the custom).
Psychological commandments of the future teacherIntroduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of pedagogical workers for correctional and educational activities
Section I. General questions of special psychology
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
1.3. Modern ideas about normal and deviant development
1.4. Factors of human mental development
Mechanisms of genetic influences
Somatic factor
Brain Injury Index
Mechanisms of social influences in the prenatal and natal periods of child development
Mechanisms of social influences in the period of individual development
1.5. Types of deviant development (dysontogeny)
Age relatedness of dysontogeny
Etiology of disorders
The concept of primary and secondary developmental defects. The doctrine of compensation
The main types of mental dysontogenesis
1.6. General patterns of deviant development
Literature
Appendix to Section 1
Section II. Mental development in dysontogenies by the type of retardation
Chapter 1. Psychology of a mentally retarded child
1.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of mentally retarded children
1.2. Historical digression
1.3. Causes of mental retardation. Classification according to severity and etiopathogenetic principle
Chapter 2
2.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with mild deviations in mental development
2.2. Historical digression
2.3. Causes and mechanisms of mild deviations. Classification according to severity and etiopathogenetic principle
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere of children with mental retardation
2.6. Features of the activity of children with mild deviations in psychophysical development
2.7. Questions of psychological diagnostics and correction in dysontogenies by the type of retardation and maturation dysfunction
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section II
Section III. Mental development in deficient dysontogenies
Chapter 1. Psychology of persons with hearing impairments (deaf psychology)
1.1. The subject and tasks of deaf psychology
1.2. Historical digression
1.Z. Causes of hearing loss. Psychological and pedagogical classification of hearing disorders in children
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere in children with hearing impairments
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of activity
1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for hearing impairment in children
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 2. Psychology of persons with visual impairment (tiflopsychology)
2.1. The subject and tasks of tiflopsychology
2.2. Historical digression
2.3. Causes of visual impairment. Classification of visual dysfunction in children
2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
2.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
2.6. Features of activity
2.7. Psychological diagnosis of children with visual impairments and correction of these disorders
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 3. Psychology of children with speech disorders (logopsychology)
Z.1. The subject and tasks of logopsychology
3.2. Historical digression
3.3. Causes of primary speech disorders. Classifications of speech disorders
3.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
3.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
3.6. Features of activity
3.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in severe speech disorders in children
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 4. Psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
4.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
4.2. Historical digression
4.3. Specificity of motor development in children with cerebral palsy (ICP). The structure of the violation. Forms of cerebral palsy
4.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
4.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
4.6. Features of activity
4.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with dysfunctions of the musculoskeletal system and correction of these disorders
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Section IV. Mental development in asynchrony with a predominance of disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere and behavior
Chapter 1. Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome
1.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with RDA
1.2. Historical digression
1.3. Causes and mechanisms of RDA. Psychological essence of RDA - classification of conditions according to severity
1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
1.6. Features of activity
1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in early childhood autism
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Chapter 2
2.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with a disharmonic personality
2.2. Historical digression
2.3. Causes of disharmonic development. Typology of pathological characters
2.4. Diagnosis and correction of disharmonic development
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Annex to Section IV
Section V. Psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
5.2. Historical digression
5.3. Causes of complex developmental disorders. Approaches to the classification of children with complex developmental disorders
5.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
5.5. Features of personality and emotional-volitional sphere
5. 6. Features of activity
5.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in complex developmental disorders
Control questions and tasks
Main literature
Section VI. Primary detection of deviations in development (basics of psychological diagnostics)
6.1. Primary identification of children with developmental disabilities using pedagogical observation
6.2. General issues of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section VI
Section VII. Methods for the prevention and correction of secondary deviations in the mental development of children with special educational needs
7.1. General methodological issues of prevention and correction
7.2. Psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention and correction of secondary deviations
7.3. Methods of indirect correction and prevention of personal underdevelopment in preschool age
Working with parents
Increasing the psychological competence of preschool teachers
Control questions and tasks
Literature
Appendix to Section II
The textbook outlines the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, methodological issues of special psychology related to the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, the problems of organizing special psychological assistance and psycho-correctional work in the education system, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" are given children with various deviations in psychophysical development
If you don't see immediate results
good or bad, be patient and watch
Deepak Chopra
Psychological commandments of the future teacher
Give up stereotypes and accept a person as he is.Believe that every person has a source of positive development and growth.
Learn to separate individual actions of a person from his whole personality.
Do not evaluate, do not judge, avoid direct advice and moralizing.
Try to understand the other person, develop active empathic listening.
Be yourself, feel free to express your feelings, but do it in a non-offensive way for others.
Master the knowledge and skills that will help you be confident in your professional competence: “Do the right thing. And let it be.”
Do not let your personal and professional dignity be humiliated.
Develop the skills of cooperation, dialogic communication with other people, regardless of their age, experience, social status and professional status.
Don't burn up today's energy by experiencing a past disaster or a prospective one: "The day of man's salvation is today!"
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of pedagogical workers for correctional and educational activities
Knowledge of the psychological characteristics of children with various developmental disabilities (FOOTNOTE: Until recently, the term "abnormal children" was the most used; currently, draft state educational standards have appeared using the term "persons with disabilities" The search for new terms is associated with general humanization education.) in both domestic and foreign pedagogy has always been given great importance. K. D. Ushinsky wrote: “Before educating a person in all respects, he must be known in all respects.” Around the world, there is a growing number of children in need of special assistance from doctors, psychologists, educators and social workers. A full analysis of the causes of adverse trends in both somatic and psychological health and their social consequences can be given only after a number of years. However, even now no one doubts that it is necessary to raise the general level of literacy in the field of special psychology and pedagogy among all specialists dealing with children (including parents, teachers of preschool institutions of all kinds, teachers, practical educational psychologists, medical workers).Preschool age requires special attention, when the body is very fragile and every day of delay in timely diagnosis and the beginning of recovery work threatens to turn into a tragedy. For example, with a correct and timely diagnosis, instead of deafness, a child may develop only a partial hearing loss (hard of hearing), or even if the degree of severity of the hearing defect persists, the child will be able to reach a more complete level of compensation and self-realization as a person.
This textbook is addressed primarily to students of pedagogical colleges and contains the necessary factual and illustrative material in accordance with the requirements of the state educational standard for training in the specialties: "Special Pedagogy in Special (Correctional) Educational Institutions" and "Correctional Pedagogy in Primary Education".
Educators of preschool institutions of all kinds, elementary school teachers meet with children with various disabilities (especially mild deviations in psychophysical and social development), often before special teachers and special psychologists. It is they who play a decisive role in the primary identification of children in need of in-depth psychological and pedagogical diagnostics and correction. It is no coincidence that the Concept of Correctional Developmental Education says: “... You can’t train just a teacher or just a psychologist. It should be a teacher-psychologist, psychologist-teacher, teacher-speech therapist, kindergarten teacher teacher. Kindergartens and schools need specialists who have basic knowledge in the field of related sciences, who are well versed in issues of correctional pedagogy, psychology, speech therapy, sociology ”(FOOTNOTE: Compensatory education in Russia: Collection of current regulatory documents and teaching materials. - M., 1997. - S. 33.).
The book reflects: the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, its connections with other sciences and branches of psychological science, methodological issues of special psychology related to the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" of children with various deviations in psychophysical development. In addition, the issues of organizing special psychological assistance in the education system and ways of its implementation are considered; the basic principles of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of deviant development and issues of psycho-correctional work within the framework of the professional competence of a future specialist.
The manual consists of an introduction and seven chapters.
Section I is devoted to general issues of special psychology, such as the history of the formation of special psychology and the characteristics of its current state, clinical symptoms, and the classification of the main types of dysontogenesis.
Sections IV-V give characteristics of children with one or another type of dysontogenetic development, for example, section II is devoted to the mental development of children with dysontogenesis by the type of retardation, section III is devoted to mental development in deficient type dysontogenesis, etc.
the subject and tasks of the corresponding section of special psychology;
the causes of this type of dysontogenesis;
features of cognitive activity;
personality traits;
features of activity;
questions of psychological diagnostics and correction.
Special sections are devoted to the issues of primary detection of developmental disorders (section VI) and methods of prevention and correction (section VII).
The control questions that complete the presentation of each topic allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material; a list of literature recommended for additional study in this course is also offered.
The most important points are illustrated by excerpts from original texts by eminent scholars and practitioners. Some sections have applications where normative documents are presented, as well as the simplest methods for the primary identification and correction of deficiencies in the development of children; both future special psychologists and future teachers will be able to use them in their practice.
Considering that the book is addressed primarily to students who will have to work with preschoolers and elementary school students, the material presented will mainly deal with the features of the mental development of children of this age.
With. one
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The textbook outlines the history of the emergence of special psychology as a branch of psychological science and practice, methodological issues of special psychology related to the modern understanding of normal and deviant development, the problems of organizing special psychological assistance and psycho-correctional work in the education system, clinical, psychological and pedagogical "portraits" are given children with various deviations in psychophysical development.
For students of institutions of secondary vocational education. It can be useful to anyone who works with children with developmental disabilities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Psychological "commandments" of the future teacher
Introduction. The state of health of children and the readiness of pedagogical workers for correctional and educational activities
Section I. GENERAL QUESTIONS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
1.1. Special psychology as an independent branch of science and practice
1.2. The main directions (sections) of special psychology
1.3. Modern ideas about normal and deviant development
1.4. Factors of human mental development
1.5. Types of deviant development (dysontogeny)
1.6. General patterns of deviant development
Appendix to Section 1
Section II. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN DYSONTOGENIA BY THE TYPE OF RETARDATION
Chapter 1. Psychology of a mentally retarded child
II. 1.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of mentally retarded children
II. 1.2. Historical digression
II.1.3. Causes of mental retardation. Classification
according to severity and etiopathogenetic principle
II. 1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
II.1.5. Features of the development of personality and emotional
volitional sphere
II. 1.6. Features of activity
Chapter 2
in mental development (with mental retardation)
II.2.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with mild
deviations in mental development
II.2.2. Historical digression
II.2.3. Causes and mechanisms of mild deviations. Classification according to severity and etiopathogenetic principle
II.2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere of children with mental retardation
II.2.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
II. 2.6. Features of the activity of children with mild deviations in psychophysical development
II.2.7. Questions of psychological diagnostics and correction in dysontogenies by the type of retardation and maturation dysfunction
Appendix to Section II
Section III. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN DEFICIENT TYPE DYSONTOGENIA
Chapter 1. Psychology of persons with hearing impairments (deaf psychology)
III. 1.1. The subject and tasks of deaf psychology
III. 1.2. Historical digression
III. 1.3. Causes of hearing loss. Psychological and pedagogical classification of hearing disorders in children
III. 1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere in children with hearing impairments
III. 1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
III. 1.6. Features of activity
III. 1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction for hearing impairment in children
Chapter 2. Psychology of persons with visual impairment (tiflopsychology)
III.2.1. The subject and tasks of tiflopsychology
III.2.2. Historical digression
Sh.2.3. Causes of visual impairment. Classification of visual dysfunction in children
III.2.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
III.2.5. Features of personality and emotional-volitional sphere
III.2.6. Features of activity
III.2.7. Psychological diagnosis of children with visual impairments and correction of these disorders
Chapter 3. Psychology of children with speech disorders (logopsychology)
III.3.1. The subject and tasks of logopsychology
III.3.2. Historical digression
III.3.3. Causes of primary speech disorders. Classifications of speech disorders
III.3.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
III.3.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
Sh.3.6. Features of activity
III.3.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in severe speech disorders in children
Chapter 4. Psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
III.4.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system
III.4.2. Historical digression
III.4.3. Specificity of motor development in children with cerebral palsy. The structure of the violation. Forms of cerebral palsy
III.4.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
III.4.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
III. 4.6. Features of activity
III.4.7. Psychological diagnostics of children with dysfunctions of the musculoskeletal system and correction of these disorders
Section IV. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER ASYNCHRONIES WITH PREDOMINATION OF DISORDERS OF EMOTIONAL-VOLITIONAL SPHERE AND BEHAVIOR
Chapter 1. Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome
IV. 1.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with RDA
IV. 1.2. Historical digression
IV. 1.3. Causes and mechanisms of RDA.
Psychological essence of RDA. Classification of conditions by severity
IV.1.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
IV.1.5. Features of personality development and emotional-volitional sphere
IV.1.6. Features of activity
IV. 1.7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in early childhood autism
Chapter 2
IV.2.1. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with a disharmonic personality
IV.2.2. Historical digression
IV.2.3. Causes of disharmonic development. Typology of pathological characters
IV.2.4. Diagnosis and correction of disharmonic development
Annex to Section IV
Section V. PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDREN WITH COMPLEX DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
V.I. The subject and tasks of the psychology of children with complex developmental disorders
V.2. Historical digression
V.3. Causes of complex developmental disorders. Approaches to the classification of children with complex developmental disorders
V.4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere
V.5. Features of personality and emotional-volitional sphere
V.6. Features of activity
V. 7. Psychological diagnostics and correction in complex developmental disorders
Section VI. PRIMARY DETECTION OF DEVIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT (FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS)
VI. 1. Primary identification of children with developmental disabilities using pedagogical observation
VI. 2. General issues of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics
Appendix to Section VI
Section VII. METHODS OF PREVENTION AND CORRECTION OF SECONDARY DEFECTS IN THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
VII. 1. General methodological issues of prevention and correction
VII.2. Psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention and correction of secondary deviations
VII.3.Methods of indirect correction and prevention of personal underdevelopment in preschool age
Appendix to Section VII
Reader 6.5
Published according to the edition: Fundamentals of Special Psychology // Ed. L.V. Kuznetsova. M., 2002.
Page 286–302
Section III. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
AT DEFICIT TYPE DYSONTOGENIA
Chapter 4. PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDREN WITH DISORDERS
FUNCTIONS OF THE LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS
I.Yu. Levchenko
4.4. FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE SPHERE
With cerebral palsy, there is a complex structure of the defect. We examined the structure of a motor defect in detail in the previous section, where the relationship of this defect with mental development disorders was repeatedly emphasized.
With cerebral palsy, we can talk about a special kind of mental dysontogenesis: deficient development. This type of mental dysontogenesis occurs in severe disorders of individual analyzer systems, including disorders in the functioning of the motor analyzer in cerebral palsy. The primary defect of the analyzer leads to underdevelopment of the functions most closely associated with it, as well as to a slowdown in the development of a number of mental functions associated with the victim indirectly. Violations of the development of individual mental functions inhibit mental development as a whole. Deficiency of the motor sphere causes the phenomena of motor, sensory, cognitive, social deprivation and disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere.
The prognosis of the mental development of a child with deficient dysontogenesis is associated with the severity of damage to the musculoskeletal system. However, the primary potential preservation of the intellectual sphere is of decisive importance.
Optimal development of such a child can occur only under the condition of adequate education and training. In case of insufficiency of correctional and developmental work, deprivation phenomena arise and grow, aggravating motor, cognitive and personal insufficiency.
Mental dysontogenesis of a deficient type and forms the basis of an anomaly of mental development in children with cerebral palsy, determines the characteristic age dynamics and uneven mental, motor and speech development. Pronounced disproportionality and an uneven, disturbed pace of development, as well as a qualitative originality in the formation of the psyche, are the main features of cognitive activity and the entire personality of a child with cerebral palsy.
It is believed that from 25 to 35% with cerebral palsy have a potentially intact intellect, however, the development of these children takes place in deficient conditions, which affects mental development. Potentially intact intelligence in cerebral palsy does not mean full, fully consistent with normal development. The main types of mental disorders in cerebral palsy are mental retardation (occurs in approximately 50% of children with cerebral palsy) and oligophrenia (occurs in 25% of children with cerebral palsy), which indicates a combination of mental dysontogenesis of a deficient type with dysontogenesis of the type of delayed development or underdevelopment . At the same time, there is no direct relationship between the severity of motor pathology and the degree of intellectual disability in cerebral palsy. In various forms of cerebral palsy, both normal and delayed mental development, mental retardation can occur.
All cognitive mental processes in cerebral palsy have a number of common features:
Violation of active voluntary attention, which negatively affects the functioning of the entire cognitive system of a child with cerebral palsy, since attention disorders lead to disturbances in perception, memory, thinking, imagination, speech;
Increased exhaustion of all mental processes (cerebroasthenic manifestations), expressed in low intellectual performance, impaired attention, perception, memory, thinking, and emotional lability. Cerebro-asthenic manifestations intensify after various diseases, increase towards the end of the day, week, academic quarter. With intellectual overstrain, secondary neurotic complications appear. Sometimes increased mental exhaustion and fatigue contribute to the pathological development of the personality: there is timidity, fears, low mood, etc.;
Increased inertia and slowness of all mental processes, leading to difficulties in switching from one type of activity to another, to pathological stuck on separate fragments of educational material, to "viscosity" of thinking, etc.
Attention
The attention of children with cerebral palsy is characterized by a number of pathological features. Most children with cerebral palsy have increased mental exhaustion and fatigue, reduced performance. Children have difficulty concentrating on the task, quickly become lethargic and irritable.
Attention disorders can be associated not only with cerebroasthenic phenomena, but also with deviations in the functioning of the visual analyzer: with the impossibility of fixing the gaze, with an insufficient level of development of the tracing function of the eyes, with limited visual field, nystagmus, etc.
Usually, with cerebral palsy, all the properties of attention are delayed in their development and have a qualitative originality. The formation of selectivity, stability, concentration, switching, distribution of attention is disturbed. For example, when performing the “Correction tests” technique, omissions of elements (objects, letters, numbers), omissions of lines, and strikethrough of characters similar in outline are noted. The performance curve is uneven. This indicates a lack of stability, concentration and distribution of attention. There are also difficulties in switching attention, getting stuck on individual elements, which is associated with the inertia of mental activity.
Particularly significant difficulties arise in the formation of voluntary attention. It happens that a child is not able to purposefully perform even elementary actions. Weakness of active voluntary attention is noted. With violations of active voluntary attention, the initial stage of the cognitive act suffers - concentration and arbitrary choice during the reception and processing of information.
The study of attention in preschoolers (up to 4 years old) with cerebral palsy was carried out by N. V. Simonova. In children with severe motor pathology (without movements), with the absence of speech and a deep delay in intellectual development, a gross violation of attention was observed. These children were unable to fix their attention on the people and objects around them. Attention to their own actions turned out to be more preserved, and it was partially possible to draw their attention to some items of constant use. In all forms of cerebral palsy, attention switching is especially affected (in most cases, this requires a long period and repeated stimulation).
The disturbances of attention described above in cerebral palsy are reflected in all subsequent stages of the cognitive process, on the functioning of the entire cognitive system as a whole.
Perception
Perception in children with cerebral palsy differs significantly from the perception of normally developing children, and here we can talk about a quantitative lag behind age standards, and about a qualitative originality in the formation of this mental function.
Children with cerebral palsy have a peculiar development of visual and auditory orienting reactions. In a child with cerebral palsy, to an optical and sound stimulus, general movements are inhibited. At the same time, there is no motor component of the orienting reaction, i.e. turning the head towards the source of sound or light. In some children, instead of orienting reactions, protective-defensive reactions occur: startle, crying, fright.
Visual concentration appears in children with cerebral palsy after 4–8 months. It is characterized by a number of pathological features caused by strabismus, nystagmus, or the influence of postural reflexes on the muscles of the eyes.
The tracing function of the eyes during normal development is formed already starting from 1 month. life. By 3 months the child is able to follow the various movements of the toy both in the vertical and in the horizontal plane. Visual tracking in children with cerebral palsy is formed later and is characterized by fragmentation, spasmodicity and limited visual field.
With normal development from 5-6 months. especially intensively begin to develop such properties of perception as activity, objectivity, integrity, structure, etc. All these properties begin to form on the basis of active perceptual behavior. The child is immersed in the objective world, actively mastering the space. Perceptual behavior includes active visual "learning" actions and tactile movements. For example, a child, getting acquainted with a toy, examines it and feels it. Such visual-tactile cognition of an object illustrates the formation of an image of perception.
In children with cerebral palsy, perceptual activity is difficult due to a motor defect: violations of motor functions, as well as the muscular apparatus of the eyes, disrupt the coordinated movements of the hand and eye. In some children, the oculomotor reaction has a reflex, rather than an arbitrary character, which practically does not activate the motor and mental activity of the child. Children are not able to follow their movements with their eyes, their hand-eye coordination is disturbed, there is no unity of the visual field and the field of action, which negatively affects the formation of the image of perception, prevents the development of self-service skills, the development of objective activity, spatial representations, visual-effective thinking , designing, and further inhibits the assimilation of educational skills, the development of cognitive activity in general. Visual-motor coordination in children with cerebral palsy is formed by about 4 years. The lack of visual-tactile integration is reflected in the entire course of their mental development.
In children with cerebral palsy, impaired visual perception (gnosis) makes it difficult to recognize complicated variants of subject images (crossed out, superimposed on each other, “noisy”, etc.). Significant difficulties are observed in the perception of conflicting composite figures (for example, a duck and a hare). Some children often retain a visual trace from the previous image for a long time, which interferes with further perception. There is a fuzzy perception of pictures: children can “recognize” the same picture with a familiar object in different ways. Many do not know how to find the right picture or recognize it, they do not know how to find the right detail in the picture or in kind. This interferes with the understanding of the plot pictures. There are difficulties in writing numbers and letters: images can be mirrored or inverted, the child is poorly oriented on the line or in the cells of the notebook. Difficulties in the graphic reproduction of letters can be associated not only with a violation of optical-spatial representations, but also with neurological manifestations (ataxia, paresis, hyperkinesis, etc.). Counting disorders can be based on difficulties in perceiving quantity, which is expressed in the inability to recognize the graphic representation of numbers, count objects, etc.
Violation of visual perception may be associated with visual impairment, which is often observed in children with cerebral palsy. Severe visual impairment (blindness and low vision) occurs in approximately 10% of children with cerebral palsy, and approximately 20–30% have strabismus. So, some of them, due to internal strabismus, use a limited field of vision: its external fields are ignored. For example, with a significant lesion of the motor apparatus of the left eye, a child may develop a habit of ignoring the left visual field. When drawing and writing, he will use only the right side of the sheet, when designing - do not complete the figure on the left, when looking at pictures - he sees only the image on the right. The same violations are observed in reading. Violation of visual concentration and tracing function of the eyes, as well as the process of creating a holistic image of perception, can also be associated with nystagmus. The presence of postural reflexes also negatively affects visual perception. Such features of the visual analyzer as reduced visual acuity, strabismus, double vision, nystagmus and others lead to a defective, distorted perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Thus, visual perception disorders in children with cerebral palsy can be explained by the pathology of the visual system.
I.I. Mamaichuk conducted a study that showed that perceptual actions and images of perception (haptic and visual) are formed in preschool children with cerebral palsy at a much slower pace than in their healthy peers. The mental development of the child plays a decisive role in their formation. The severity of the violation of the motor functions of the upper limbs, which results in a mismatch of sensory and executive actions, prevents an adequate graphic representation of objects in children with cerebral palsy with intact intelligence, and also negatively affects the quality of haptic perception of figures. In children with cerebral palsy with mental retardation, deeper impairments of sensory-perceptual and executive activity are observed, and the degree of these impairments mainly depends on the depth of the intellectual defect. An important role in the development of the generalization and meaningfulness of haptic and visual images of perception in healthy and sick children is played by the level of their speech development. In children with cerebral palsy with intact intelligence, there was no stable connection between the word and the sensory image, which to a large extent hampered the correlation of the learned names with the object in the process of solving perceptual tasks. In children with cerebral palsy, complicated by a mild degree of mental retardation, the difficulties in verbal reflection of haptic and visual images of perception were mainly determined by the low level of analysis and synthesis of sensory signals.
Some children with cerebral palsy have hearing loss, which negatively affects the formation and development of auditory perception, including phonemic (indistinguishability of words similar in sound: "goat" - "spit", "house" - "tom"). Any violation of auditory perception leads to a delay in speech development. Errors caused by a violation of phonemic perception are most clearly manifested in writing.
A weak sense of one's movements and difficulties in the course of carrying out actions with objects are the reasons for the lack of active tactile perception in children with cerebral palsy, including recognition of objects by touch (stereognosis). It is known that in a healthy child, the first acquaintance with the objects of the surrounding world occurs by feeling objects with his hands. Through actions with objects, children establish a whole range of their properties: shape, weight, consistency, density, thermal properties, dimensions, proportions, texture, etc. Stereognosis is not an innate property, but is acquired in the process of active object-practical activity of the child. In most children with cerebral palsy, there is a limitation in object-practical activity, groping movements of the hands are weak, touch and recognition of objects by touch are difficult. According to N. V. Simonova, in children with atonic-astatic form of cerebral palsy against the background of a deep intellectual development delay, the greatest difficulties arise in the formation of stereognosis. The insufficiency of active tactile perception leads to a delay in the formation of a holistic view of objects, their properties, texture, which leads to a lack of knowledge and ideas about the surrounding world, and prevents the formation of various types of activity.
The perception of space is a necessary condition for the orientation of a person in the world around him. Mastering knowledge about space involves: the ability to identify and distinguish spatial features and relationships, the ability to correctly verbally designate them, to navigate in spatial relationships when performing various activities. Spatial analysis is carried out by a whole complex of analyzers, although the main role belongs to the motor analyzer, which is the main broken link in cerebral palsy. Due to motor insufficiency, limited field of vision, impaired gaze fixation, speech defect, the development of orientation in space may be delayed, and by school age, a child with cerebral palsy usually has pronounced spatial impairments. In children with cerebral palsy, many authors found significant disturbances in spatial perception (R.Ya. Abramovich-Lgetman, K.A. Semenova, M.B. Eidinova, A.A. Dobronravova, etc.).
In all types of cerebral palsy, there is a violation of spatial perception. With hemiplegia, lateral orientation is impaired, with diplegia, vertical orientation, and with tetraplegia, orientation in the direction from front to back (sagittal). In the latter form, the distortion of spatial perception has the most severe consequences for the child's psyche.
Research by A.A. Dobronravova showed that the lack of three-dimensional representations leads to the fact that a paralyzed child has a wrong idea about the form and essence of the objects surrounding him. In most of the studied children with cerebral palsy, the motor-kinesthetic analyzer was grossly impaired, while vision was preserved. In half of the examined children, the concept of volume and the ratio of a planar image with the same volumetric object were disturbed. For example, if children easily recognized a horse or a house in pictures, then they found it difficult to choose a similar object among toys. In a number of children aged 3–5 years, the identification of the objects shown in the picture with the toys offered for selection was carried out not by shape, but by color, which is typical for healthy children of the second year of life. A.A. Dobronravova considered this as an indicator of developmental delay in children with cerebral palsy. The naming of the object depicted in the picture by the researcher provided significant assistance to the children. This made it easier for the child to find a similar item among toys. Many children with cerebral palsy had a violation of the idea of the size of volumetric objects. So, the children found it difficult to select clothes, shoes, dishes of a certain size in accordance with the size of the dolls. In children with whom further work was carried out on the development of three-dimensional representations, the formation of spatial perception proceeded much easier and faster. The data of this study indicate a close relationship between the development of three-dimensional representations and spatial perception, as well as the need for early work on the development of spatial perception in preschoolers with cerebral palsy.
In childhood, the development of space-time relations is a complex process. At preschool age, the formation of ideas about time is associated with the development of an understanding of the duration, speed, sequence in changes in the phenomena of the surrounding reality. During this period, children master the ability to distinguish and highlight signs of time in the process of observing seasonal phenomena and changes in nature, organizing their behavior at different periods of the day, denoting a sequence of habitual actions. At preschool age, the perception of time is associated with a system of habitual actions, mainly regime moments, for example: "It will be morning when you need to do exercises." With the dependence of the perception of time and space, children meet in their practical, playful and other activities. In children with cerebral palsy, various links of spatial and temporal perception can suffer: sensory perception, object-spatial and temporal orientation, spatial organization of a motor act, verbal designation of spatial and temporal components.
As a result of research conducted by N.V. Simonova, it can be argued that the formation of spatio-temporal relations in children with cerebral palsy is associated with numerous difficulties. Particular difficulties arise in cases where the sequence and duration of phenomena is determined with the help of spatial relationships. The reason for the difficulties in mastering spatio-temporal relations is that in children with cerebral palsy the formation of spatio-temporal representations occurs with a small inclusion of the active movement of the children themselves, with a limitation of practical, everyday, gaming experience. Difficulties in distinguishing spatial relationships, correct explanations, and erroneous reproduction of spatial features point to the insufficiency of a generalized understanding of the verbal formulations that have already developed in children, to the verbalization of spatial relationships that is ahead of the practical development of space. With cerebral palsy, this is due to the development of the environment on the basis of the most intact (and still impaired!) Functions, for example, based on speech.
According to N.V. Simonova, in children with severe spasticity, the most pronounced violation of orientation in space is found, accompanied by a feeling of fear that occurs when first meeting three-dimensional objects, and then with the development of three-dimensional representations. The flat image of objects in the pictures, as a rule, does not cause discomfort in these children. The author's research also showed that children with hyperkinetic form of cerebral palsy show the ability to spatial perception and the simplest generalization earlier. They develop an idea of their body map earlier, while children with other forms of cerebral palsy usually have only a formal knowledge of their body map based on long-term learning. Correlation and recognition of individual body parts on toys, i.e. abstract knowledge of the body scheme, in children with other forms of cerebral palsy, is often impaired. In children with an atonic-astatic form of cerebral palsy, against the background of a deep intellectual retardation at the age of 3–4 years, one can notice complete spatial disorientation, which manifests itself especially clearly when forming spatial representations of an object, even a well-known one.
According to N.V. Simonova, in children with cerebral palsy, various parts of the process of active perception of space can be disrupted, which is clearly manifested in a variety of activities that require the presence of spatial representations. These violations increase as the complexity and modification of children's activities. A special study of spatial representations and elementary practical orientation was carried out in children with cerebral palsy aged 6–7 years who do not have mental retardation, in the process of completing tasks for the development of speech, construction and drawing. In addition to the general difficulties in spatial perception, characteristic of healthy children of this age, there were also found qualitatively peculiar difficulties in perceiving space in children with cerebral palsy, which are more persistent and more frequent. The formation of spatial perception in these children proceeds at a slower pace, while the level of mental development of children and the nature of their cognitive activity play a significant role. The practical differentiation of spatial relationships and the use of adequate verbal designations in most cases in children with cerebral palsy is situational. The greatest difficulties are caused by practical orientation in the directions "left - right" when changing the reference point. The dependence of the level of development of spatial representations and orientation on the severity of the general motor pathology of the child in the study of N.V. Simonova was not found, however, the features of spatial perception reflected the nature of the pathology of the motor sphere in various clinical forms of cerebral palsy.
Research by L.A. Danilova found that many schoolchildren with cerebral palsy have complex defects in stereognosis, visual perception of form and spatial representations. Violation of these functions greatly complicates the mastery of such subjects as drawing, geometry, geography. In addition, these defects underlie a special type of dysgraphia and dyslexia (writing and reading disorders). In the process of corrective work, it was revealed that at first the defect in visual perception is compensated, then the defect in spatial perception, and subsequently astereognosis.
For the formation of spatial representations in a healthy child, along with motor and visual analyzers, hearing is of great importance. For 5 months of life, the auditory orienting reaction is a component of the visual perception of space. With cerebral palsy, there is a lack of spatially distinctive activity of the auditory analyzer.
Thus, in a child with cerebral palsy, due to motor insufficiency and other disorders, the development of spatial representations and the formation of a body scheme are delayed.
Some experts note sensory hypersensitivity in children with cerebral palsy. For example, a child reacts with increased muscle contraction to a sudden noise or to an unexpected approach of a person. In very young children, muscle spasm can be observed, even when a sunbeam falls on the child's face. The slightest sensory stimulation, if it is sudden, can cause a sharp increase in spasm.
Thus, already from the first year of life, children with cerebral palsy are characterized by a violation of the process of active perception of the surrounding world, which often leads to mental retardation even with good potential intellectual capabilities, since it is perception, as the basis of sensory cognition, that forms the foundation of the entire mental cognitive system.
