Industrial organization as a system. Financial and industrial group The concept and essence of a socio-economic group

Organizational forms of enterprises

The forms of activity of the enterprise can be divided into organizational and legal and organizational and economic. Organizational and legal forms include business partnerships and cooperatives.

Economical society is an association of persons created to carry out entrepreneurial activities. Members of the society are divided into full and limited.

Companies are created with the consent of at least two citizens or legal entities by combining their contributions in order to carry out economic activities.

An enterprise created by a group of persons for joint production or other economic activity is called a cooperative.

The main organizational and economic forms of the enterprise include: concerns, associations, consortia, syndicates, cartels, financial and industrial groups.

Concern is a diversified joint stock company that controls enterprises through a participatory system. The concern acquires a controlling stake in various companies that are subsidiaries of it. In turn, subsidiaries may also own controlling stakes in other joint stock companies, often located in other countries.

Associations- This is a form of voluntary association of economically independent enterprises, organizations that can simultaneously be included in other entities. The structure of the association, as a rule, includes single-specialized enterprises and organizations located in a certain territory. The main goal of the association is to jointly solve scientific, technical, industrial, economic, social and other problems.

Consortium is an association of entrepreneurs with the aim of jointly conducting a large financial transaction. Such an association of entrepreneurs has the opportunity to invest in a large project, while the risk arising from large investments is significantly reduced, since the responsibility falls on many participants.

Syndicate- unification for the purpose of marketing products by entrepreneurs of the same industry to eliminate unnecessary competition between them.

Cartel is an agreement between enterprises of the same industry on prices for products, services, division of sales markets, shares in the total volume of production, etc.

Financial and industrial group is a union of industrial, banking, insurance and commercial capital, as well as the intellectual potential of enterprises and organizations.

Production, economic, economic and social activities of the enterprise

The sphere of production and economic activity of the enterprise includes the processes of production, reproduction and rotation. Production processes ensure the implementation of the tasks of preparing and mastering the release of new products, the manufacture of industrial products and the provision of services, maintenance of production. Work on the restoration of fixed assets, expansion and technical re-equipment of enterprises, training and retraining of personnel are processes of reproduction. Rotation processes include logistics and sales of finished products.

The enterprise independently plans its production and economic activities and determines development prospects based on the demand for manufactured products, works and services, the need to ensure the production and social development of the enterprise, and increase the personal income of its employees. The plans are based on contracts concluded with consumers of products and services and suppliers of material and technical resources. The company also performs work on the supply of government agencies. When preparing plans, the enterprise agrees with the administration of the city, district, measures that can cause environmental, social, demographic and other consequences and relate to the interests of the population of the territory.

Enterprises, based on the study of market conditions, potential partners, information on price movements, organize the material and technical supply of their own production by acquiring resources, carried out both directly from consumers and in wholesale trade organizations, in intermediary organizations, on commodity exchanges.

The relations of the enterprise with other enterprises, organizations and citizens in all spheres of economic activity are built on the basis of contracts. At the same time, enterprises in their activities must take into account the interests of consumers, their requirements for the quality of products, works and services.

Enterprises, regardless of the form of ownership of the means of production and other property, operate according to the principle of cost accounting - reimbursement of cash costs for the production of products from the proceeds from sales and ensuring profit. Under the conditions of cost accounting, the enterprise has complete economic independence. It recruits employees, purchases equipment, raw materials and supplies, organizes the production process, sells products, has a complete accounting and reporting system with the identification of the results of economic activities.

The company sells its products at prices set independently or on a contractual basis and, in cases determined by law, at state prices.

At all enterprises, the main generalizing indicator of financial performance is profit. The profit remaining with the enterprise after taxes and other payments to the budget goes to its full disposal. The company independently determines the areas of use of net profit. The profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is used to solve the problems of technical and organizational development of production, to strengthen its material and technical base, to conduct scientific research, and to the social development of the team. Part of the net profit can be transferred to the ownership of the team members. Its volume and the order of distribution among the members of the collective is determined by the council of the enterprise.

The company independently organizes its financial activities. It has the right to open a bank account to preserve all funds and carry out all types of monetary transactions, to use a bank loan on a commercial contractual basis. The source of the formation of the financial resources of the enterprise is profit, depreciation charges, funds received from the sale of securities, shares and other contributions of members of the labor collective and other receipts.

Each enterprise has the right to independently carry out foreign economic activity in accordance with applicable law. For its implementation, enterprises can create joint ventures with foreign firms, foreign trade firms, conclude agreements on joint research, production and trade activities with foreign firms. Foreign exchange earnings are credited to the foreign currency balance sheet account of the enterprise and can be used by it independently. The enterprise allocates part of the funds received to the budgets of different levels.

Social development, improvement of working conditions, compulsory social, medical insurance and social security of employees of enterprises and members of their families are regulated by law. The company is obliged to provide its employees with safe working conditions and bears responsibility in the manner prescribed by law for damage caused to their health and working capacity.

An enterprise can independently establish additional holidays, reduced working hours and other benefits for its employees, as well as encourage employees of organizations serving the labor collective and are not part of the enterprise.

In the analysis of the socio-economic structure, along with the foundations of stratification, it is used and the principle of typology. Existing social and socio-economic groups may differ in some way, which are not associated with direct group-forming factors, but are also important.

Let's highlight the following main typologically different groups.

1. Traditional and new groups. Traditional groups are understood to be long-existing groups that are well integrated into the socio-economic system. Although, of course, some social-professional and social-labor categories of people can remain "disadvantaged" for a relatively long time. New - these are newly emerging groups that do not yet have a certain status: they are promising or unpromising, they will be able to take their place in the socio-economic structure or not; the uncertainty of the status of a new group is simply uncertainty in the conditions of activity, rights and opportunities, maximum possible income, etc. Representatives of the traditional group better and more realistically represent all these circumstances of their existence.

In traditional groups, associations and unions can be organized better, more effectively, although new groups also strive for this. Socio-demographic differences are possible between traditional and new groups. For example, if in traditional professions and occupations "cadres are aging", then in new ones there is an influx of young people. Sometimes new professions and occupations "automatically" become more prestigious, attractive, ie. the very fact of novelty stimulates an orientation towards them for socio-psychological and economic reasons. New groups more often than traditional groups become the object of special public attention and discussion.

In some cases, the assessment of socio-economic groups in terms of the categories "traditional" and "new" is relative. The socio-economic structure does not change in the composition of the groups, but the groups themselves change significantly in their characteristics. For example, workers of a certain production remain as a group, but due to the mechanization and automation of this production, they are transformed into highly qualified personnel, while acquiring a new quality of both labor and human personalities. With the change in property relations, the peasant also does not disappear, but becomes either a small farmer or an employee in a private agricultural firm. The seller, while remaining a "trading man", at the same time changes greatly, transforms from an employee into an entrepreneur.

2. Dominant groups. The concept of dominance reflects the specific processes of intergroup leadership and the domination of some groups over others, which also occur in the socio-economic structure. Dominance can be long-term or temporary, and take many forms. Let us dwell on some of the most specific phenomena.

zation); the peasantry (in conditions of hunger or the orientation of the economy towards agricultural production); engineering and technical intelligentsia (in the conditions of "mass" automation and robotization); managers (in a boom in "management culture"); economists (in the context of a global revision of the economic system and the search for a new economic philosophy), etc. The phenomenon of dominance can also clearly manifest itself at the micro level, the level of individual enterprises (for example, the emergence of a situation in which the importance of suppliers, trade union activists, highly qualified workers, workers of some kind of production that brings special profit to the enterprise, etc.) sharply increases.

From the point of view of economic sociology, such processes in economics as claims to dominance, propaganda of dominance, conflict over dominance, suppression of dominance, etc.are interesting.

Second, dominance is based on the principle of basic and non-basic functions. Groups that perform basic functions acquire superiority features, they are more prestigious, and often have the ability to impose their will and behavior on those groups that are engaged in performing various kinds of auxiliary, intermediary, temporary, non-specialized tasks. Non-basic functions sometimes make those who perform them socially dependent. Thus, the division of functions into basic and non-basic is a problem not only of the economic organization of production, but also of social relations.

In all cases, dominance is accompanied (or differs) by such social indicators as a special objective weight of roles or functions, the presence of privileges, special prestige, the ability to determine the situation and conditions for everyone, direct dictate, relatively large compared to other labor costs.

3. Marginal groups. There are groups that occupy a borderline, intermediate position in the socio-economic structure, combining the features of several groups (more often the comparative plan is made up of "extremes", two significantly different groups). Intermediate, borderline is marginality. We give the following examples of marginal groups (marginal groups):

so-called independent workers, i.e. persons who own property, but do not use the lease

labor. The limitation of this group manifests itself when it is compared with the owners and workers;

the so-called new poor. There are two meanings of this concept. The new poor are people who do not feel material needs, but lag behind in income from the average standard of living, or people who, for some reason, suddenly found themselves poor, but by inertia retain the self-awareness and consumer attitudes of the middle class;

categories of workers employed in the city, but living in the countryside, or vice versa. This social category combines the features of a peasant and a worker, a rural and urban dweller (in the village, its representatives perceive themselves as city dwellers, and in the city - as villagers, etc.). Sociological studies of this category are relevant and interesting from the point of view of the type of personality and the characteristics of relationships with others;

some categories of highly skilled workers. Formally, they belong to the working class, but in fact they perform tasks and functions that allow them to perceive themselves as scientific and technical intelligentsia;

the bottom line of leaders. Formally, they relate to the leadership, are perceived as managers and representatives of the apparatus, but in fact they are busy with the problems of direct production, they are connected with grassroots jobs, they know well the tasks and functions of ordinary workers, often even perform them, sometimes communicate with workers more confidentially than with the administration;

trade union activists. Comparative plan of their marginal ™ - wage workers and employers. Initially, trade union activists are defenders of the interests of the first social category, but practice forces them to understand, respect and take into account the interests of another category, so in reality they have a dual consciousness and self-awareness.

In each of the specific socio-economic groups, you can "find" features of the borderline ™, transitivity. Therefore, the very category of marginal ™ is of particular importance when it comes to significantly different and contradictory features. In the worst case, magrinality can turn into a conflict of the subject, the uncertainty and inconsistency of his behavior, his lack of clear value orientations. From a socio-economic point of view, marginality can be both beneficial and unprofitable 38

position, allowing you to simultaneously claim the rights and capabilities of different groups, or even depriving these rights and opportunities as "outsiders".

According to sociological definitions, the so-called declassed elements are also considered marginal, i.e. persons who do not belong to any of the socio-economic groups taken for the main classes. Being marginalized in this sense of the word, these individuals are also deprived of interests, self-awareness, behavior, which are considered "socially normal" in the existing system.

4. Problem groups. These include groups that occupy an unfavorable position against the general socio-economic background in terms of generally accepted and obvious socio-economic standards. Problematic can also include those groups whose interests, needs, expectations (assessed as legitimate, normal) have not been realized for a long time. The problem is assessed primarily from the point of view of objective indicators. Subjective indicators do not always adequately reflect the situation, since individuals are capable of both exaggerating and ignoring, not realizing the unfavorable aspects of their situation.

The simplest examples of problem groups are the unemployed; interethnic and interregional migrants; working single mothers; working heads of large families; representatives of harmful and difficult areas of work; low-paid workers who want to improve their qualifications, education, but do not have the opportunity for this; subjects of labor and economic activity, discriminated against in taxes; forced to work for hire and at the same time maintain a personal subsidiary farm; forced to build housing on their own (rural residents as opposed to urban); those whose work is associated with a permanent and long separation from the family; employed at the final stage of production and therefore experiencing special moral responsibility and tension, etc. All problem groups differ significantly in terms of such criteria as the source of the problem, absoluteness or relativity, immanent or random nature, the possibility and ways of overcoming problematicity.

Theoretically and practically, the following perspectives or ways of resolving the problem of socio-economic groups are possible:

a) the problematic nature of the group is immanent,
therefore irresistible for the foreseeable future;

b) the problematic nature is random, therefore
overcome through organizational innovation;

c) the members of the group adapt sufficiently to their own
position, so the problem is overcome in
subjective terms, i.e. get used to it and adapt
they are;

d) the problematic nature, in principle, cannot be overcome, but it
mitigated by incentive, compensatory, protections
new measures;

e) the problematic nature of this group is mitigated by its
"uniform transfer" to other groups (it, for example
measures, jointly divided or redistributed by
struggle and competition, according to imperious decisions);

f) the problem group is destroyed, the members of the group
throw it, replenishing others, more prosperous
groups.

5. Closed, open, transitional groups. The most common criterion for determining the openness or closedness of groups is the possibility of intergroup movement, leaving the group or entering it. Initially, in sociology, the phenomenon of openness or closedness of groups was considered in the socio-generational aspect. There is a so-called caste society, where each new generation inherits the profession of its parents and the transition from one social and professional group to another is practically impossible, and a free democratic society where social origin is not dominant, where there is free professional choice and job status depends on personal merit. The first society corresponds to a closed, and the second - an open social and socio-economic structure.

In "modern society, the problem of caste is eradicated. However, the phenomenon of openness or closedness of groups persists. Firstly, there may be specific economic, administrative and legal ways of" retaining personnel ", in which the desire of a person to change profession and job is either unrealistic or has adverse consequences ...

DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT OF INTEGRATED ECONOMIC

Alekhin S.V.

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS IN THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY:

CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES

FINANCIAL-INDUSTRIAL GROUPS IN RUSSIAN ECONOMY: CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES

Key words: economic integration, financial-industrial groups, classification of financial-industrial groups.

Keywords: economic integration, financial-industrial groups, the classification of financial-industrial groups.

Resume: The article defines the characteristic features of a financial and industrial group as a type of integrated association, the formation of which is due to a number of advantages both for banks participating in FIGs and for industrial enterprises. A systematic classification of financial and industrial groups operating in Russia is presented, and a comparison is made with the types of FIGs in foreign countries.

Abstract: the paper defines the characteristics of financial-industrial groups as a form of integrated associations, the formation of which is due to a number of advantages for participating banks FPG and industrial companies. Presented a classification system of financial-industrial groups operating in Russia, and the comparison with the views of FPG in foreign countries.

The purpose of the activity of any business entity is the accumulation of capital, both on the scale of the enterprise itself and on the scale of the national economy. Having certain financial resources, the company seeks to increase their volume, applying the principles of self-financing and self-sufficiency. However, in the context of increasing competition and growth in the scale of production, it is far from always possible for enterprises to achieve capitalization goals on their own, without the help of additional sources of financing, which leads to the need to develop new ways of capital growth.

Among the effective ways of development, special attention should be paid to the strategy of economic integration, which is described in the literature as the combination of financial resources of several business entities into a single whole:

This is the unification of economic entities, the deepening of their interaction, the development

the lack of ties between them, which is manifested in the expansion and deepening of production and technological ties, the joint use of resources, the pooling of capital, in the creation of each other favorable conditions for the implementation of economic activities, the removal of mutual barriers1;

This is the fusion of reproduction processes, scientific cooperation, the formation of close economic, financial, scientific-production and trade ties2;

It is the process of developing deep and lasting relationships, resulting in

1Adamova, K.Z. Quasi-integrated structures in the new economy: thesis .... Candidate of Economic Sciences: 08.00.01 / Adamova K.Z. - Saratov: GOU VPO "Saratov State Socio-Economic University", 2011.-P.8

2Vasiliev, V.N. Organization of production in market conditions: Textbook for students of engineering specialties of universities. - M .: Mechanical Engineering, 1993 .-- S. 103.

there is a fusion of reproduction processes, capital, scientific cooperation, the formation of close economic, scientific-production and trade ties1.

Currently, the following integration schemes for business entities can be distinguished:

1. Enterprise (non-financial sector) + enterprise (non-financial sector).

With this form of integration, all available resources of the enterprise are combined: technologies, industries, personnel, finance, etc.

2. Enterprise (non-financial sector) + financial institution.

The pooling of financial resources is in progress. Such associations are formed when enterprises, carrying out large-scale production activities, experience a serious need for significant amounts of financial assistance, which can be satisfied by introducing financial organizations into an integrated association, as a result of which the combined enterprise gains access to additional financial resources and opportunities.

3. Financial institution + financial institution (can be expressed in the "bank + bank" or "bank + insurance organization" scheme).

Integration of bank capital is one of the ways to ensure the stability of banks, allows you to use the opportunities to expand the market niche, diversify your activities, increase the volume and quality of services provided.

One of the most difficult forms of integration is the unification of banking and industrial capital, since their forms have a different nature of origin. In an integrated association, these different in nature capitals move from one form to another (from monetary to productive and vice versa), which gives the effect of their use much higher than the sum of the results of their separate

1 Big encyclopedic dictionary: in 2 volumes / Ed. A.M. Prokhorov .- M .: Sov. encyclopedia, 1991. - T.1.-863 p.

functioning (Figure 1). Such integrated associations in world practice are called financial and industrial

groups.

Exploring the concept of a financial and industrial group, we note that in numerous works there are two approaches of scientists to this term. Some authors consider FIGs as a process of combining industrial and financial forms of capital on different terms. In particular, the following definitions can be found: “... industrial capital, combined with bank capital, forms such an entity as financial and industrial groups

(FIG) "3; "FIG - connection of banking and

industrial capital "; “Integration of banking and industrial capital” 5; "Merger of financial capital with industrial" 6. Another approach is that the authors define FIG as a set of enterprises in the financial and non-financial sectors of the economy, which, after merging, carry out joint activities:

- “the financial and industrial group often includes. banks and financial companies. With their help, financial services for the business within the group take place. Within the group ... economic and financial interdependence is formed ”7;

2 In Russia, the activities of financial and industrial groups were regulated by the Federal Law of November 30, 1995. No. 190-FZ "On financial and industrial groups", but it became invalid on 22.06.2007. Recognition of the law as invalid did not lead to the liquidation of existing FIGs in Russia, whose activities are currently regulated by the provisions of the Civil Code and other legislative acts.

3Financial and industrial groups: foreign experience and realities of Russia / Ed. A.G. Movsesyan, B.M. Smitienko. - M., 1996 .-- S. 8.

4Kalin, A., Kulikov, V. How to accelerate the development of Russian financial and industrial groups [Text] / A. Kalin, V. Kulikov // Russian Economic Journal. - 1995. - No. 8. - S. 20.

5 Makarevich, L.I. Problems of creating financial-sovo-industrial groups in Russia [Text] / L.I. Makarevich // Banking. - 1995. - No. 12. - S. 20.

6 Bolotin, V.V. Financial and industrial groups: opportunities, reality and rule-making [Text] / V.V. Bolotin // Finance. - 1995. - No. 7. - S. 8.

7 Economy in Transition / Ed. V.V. Radaeva, A.V. Buzgalin. - M., 1995 .-- S. 361-362.

- ". Financial and industrial groups, covering industrial enterprises, research organizations, trading firms, banks, insurance companies, pension and investment funds - a kind of framework for the economy of the leading industrial countries of the world economy as a whole" 1;

- "corporations uniting loans

- "... represents a form of integration of independent legal entities, including production, trade enterprises and financial institutions that have combined their resources ... in order to ensure the most efficient production, economic, financial and other activities" 3;

- “... production and economic

Figure 1 - Scheme of the integration of financial and industrial capital

financial institutions and industrial relations of large industrial and technical enterprises, which received the status of complexes with credit and financial FIGs "2;

1 Lvov, D.S., Dementyev, V.E. Financial and industrial groups in the Russian economy [Text] / D.S. Lvov, V.E. Dementyev. - M., 1994 .-- S. 19.

2Vinslav, Y., Savchenko, V. Russian state

military entrepreneurship: corporate identity

[Text] / Y. Vinslav, V. Savchenko // Russian economic journal. - 1997. - No. 2. - S. 31.

3 Minina, T.I. The role of banks in the formation and development of financial industrial groups in Russia: dissertation for the degree of candidate of economic sciences .. - M., 2001. - p. 38.

institutions, characterized by many ... forms of existence. "

Russian legislation defined a financial and industrial group as “a set of legal entities that act as a parent company and subsidiaries, or have combined their tangible and intangible assets (participation system) in full or in part on the basis of an agreement on the creation of FIGs for the purpose of technological and economic integration for the implementation of investment and other projects and programs aimed at increasing competitiveness and expanding markets for goods and services, increasing production efficiency, creating new jobs "2.

Since the definition presented above assumes that FIG can be created only if there are goals for the implementation of an investment project or program, but does not contain tasks such as establishing long-term partnerships, establishing mutually beneficial cooperation, ensuring the fulfillment of mutual obligations, concentrating efforts to uphold common interests and etc., this explains the fact that the Federal Law of the Russian Federation on financial and industrial groups was abolished.

Summarizing the above definitions, the following characteristic features of a financial and industrial group as an integrated association can be indicated:

a) it is an association of independent business entities with their own financial resources, technologies, labor resources, etc .;

1Radionova, L.N., Shushakova, A.G., Zainullin, V.K. Formation of financial and industrial groups and the problem of capital assessment [Text] / L.N. Radionova, A.G. Shushakova, V.K. Zainullin // Oil and Gas Business. -2004.-volume 2.

2 Law of the Russian Federation of 30.11. 1995 No. 190-FZ "On financial and industrial groups",

Art. 2, (no longer valid).

b) this integrated association does not have independence as a legal entity;

c) business entities of any organizational and legal form can be united;

d) various forms of capital are combined: banking, industrial, insurance, trade and intermediary, etc .;

e) the merger is carried out, both on the basis of control of one company over another (formation of a holding), and on the contractual terms of a partial merger;

f) obligatory presence of banks or other financial organizations in the association;

g) the presence of financial interdependence between the members of the financial and industrial group.

Participation in the financial and industrial group of business entities of various financial and non-financial sectors of the economy has its own advantages for each of them, which are the motives for their integration.

So, for example, the following advantages of merging into FIGs for industrial companies can be highlighted:

Obtaining guarantees from a member bank and using its image to enter the capacious markets of other countries3;

Receiving long-term financial resources from "own" financial structures;

Receiving foreign investments guaranteed by banks belonging to the group;

Using a transfer price mechanism to reduce the cost of manufactured products;

Use of financial consulting services from bank specialists in risk management, stress testing, financial stability;

Use of underwriting services for the issue and sale of securities by an enterprise that is a member of a FIG;

Using the services of a member bank to form a bank syndicate

3 Stepanova, V.S. Formation of project financing by commercial banks: author. dis. for a job. uch. step. Cand. econom. sciences / scientific. hands. Yu.V. Rozhkov. - Khabarovsk, 2004 .-- 199 p.

to organize the syndicated lending process;

Transfer of financial assets belonging to industrial enterprises to the trust management of banks.

Financial organizations, joining FIGs, do so for the following reasons, which determine their desire to cooperate with enterprises:

Reducing the level of credit risk when placing funds to borrowing companies (members of FIGs);

Improvement of settlements and reduction of mutual indebtedness between the participants of FIGs;

Expansion of credit and investment opportunities;

Strengthening competitiveness in the face of expansion of foreign banks;

Generation of additional income from the provision of consulting services to participating enterprises.

Of great importance for the study of the essence of financial and industrial groups is a complex classification of their types, which depends on the composition of the participants and the order of connections in their interaction. The need for classification arises from the fact that the existing financial and industrial groups are heterogeneous in their content, therefore their grouping will make it possible to identify common characteristic features for certain groups.

The most general is the classification of FIGs, proposed by the authors V.Kotilko and O. Orlova1, who distinguish different types of FIGs by regional basis:

Regional FIGs, whose actions are limited to the territory of a region, industrial region or republic;

Interregional FIGs, which are sometimes called nationwide, go beyond one region. Most often, the scale of action of such groups is determined by the broad organization of the industrial nucleus of FIGs;

Transnational FIGs can become a tool for embedding Russian

: Kotilko, V., Orlova, O. Strategy for the development of corporate structures in Russia [Electronic resource]. Access mode //

http://www.rau.su/observer/N08_00/08_16.HTM.

economies in world economic relations, for the most part they are still guided by the CIS countries.

This classification does not allow us to determine the specifics of the FIG's activities and the model of its management, since the leader of the financial and industrial group is not indicated, that is, the company that is the organizer of the FIG is not defined, determines the direction of the FIG's development and has the functions of monitoring its activities.

On this basis, financial and industrial groups can be classified into:

Banking groups (where banks play a central role);

Industrial groups, where the group leader is a large industrial company.

Industrial2 FIGs are groups where the center is industrial enterprises. Industrial FIGs have a pronounced sectoral focus, determined by the industry in which the enterprise or group of enterprises operates that plays a key role in the activities of an integrated association. The center of industrial FIGs can be: an enterprise or a group of companies; research institute, design bureau (including production base).

Banking FIGs are formed when banks establish control over enterprises and perform the functions of financing, consulting, settlements between members of a financial and industrial group.

For example, Table 1 shows Russian banks that are part of one of the financial and industrial groups at the beginning of 2012.

The entry of banks into integrated structures can be investigated using data from the Bank of Russia on the participation of domestic banks in the capital of other organizations.

2 Features of the formation and development prospects of the main types of financial and industrial groups in the Russian Federation // Industrial policy in the Russian Federation. - 2002. - No. 3.

Table 1 - Participation of banks in the largest financial and industrial groups

Bank The group to which the bank belongs Industrial enterprises of the group

Alfa-Bank Alfa-Group GoldenTelecom, Vimpelcom, Perekrestok, TNK-BP

Gazprombank Gazprom Gazprom

Rosbank, OVK Interros Norilsk Nickel

Petrokommerts LUKOIL LUKOIL

Surgutneftegazbank Surgutneftegaz Surgutneftegaz

Russian Regional Development Bank Rosneft Rosneft

TransCreditBank (part of VTB Group) Russian Railways (RZD) State railway monopoly

BIN-Bank RussNeft RussNeft, real estate, trading companies

Moscow Bank for Reconstruction and Development AFK-Sistema Telecommunication companies, Detsky Mir, Intourist

Bank Zenith, Bank Devon-Credit Tatneft Tatneft

Thus, statistical data indicate that in recent years, the participation of Russian credit

organizations in subsidiaries and dependent joint stock companies, which is clearly demonstrated by the following diagram (Figure 2).

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

According to the Bank of Russia

Figure 2- Dynamics of participation of credit institutions in the capital of subsidiaries and affiliates

joint stock companies (billion rubles)

Analysis of the data presented in the diagram allows us to conclude that by the beginning of 2014. banks are increasingly investing their capital in the activities of companies in other sectors of the national economy. The highest growth rates of the placement

Bank capital growth is observed in the period 01.01.2012-01.01.2013 - 49.6%, when the volume of bank resources in the capital of other companies increased from 387.3 billion rubles. as of 01.01.2012 up to 579.4 billion rubles. as of 01.01.2013 In general, for the analyzed ne-

period, the volume of participation of bank capital in the capital of subsidiaries and dependent joint-stock companies increased from 17.3 billion rubles. up to 599.1 billion rubles or 3363%. Noteworthy is the fact that during the post-crisis recovery of the banking sector in Russia (2009-2010), the volume of participation in the capital of other enterprises was not reduced, so if the volume of loans provided during this period decreased from 16526.9 billion rubles. to 16,115.5 billion rubles (or by 2.5%), then the investments by banks of their capital in subsidiaries and dependent joint stock companies increased from 211.9 billion rubles. up to 284.5 billion rubles. (or 34.3%).

Banks, being members of financial and industrial groups, can perform a range of different functions, which makes it possible to classify FIGs according to the role of commercial banks in them.

T.I. Minina distinguishes the following groups of banking FIGs based on the position of the bank as an internal financial institution of FIG:

1. The first is that the bank performs the functions of a "personal banker", where its role can be characterized as subordinate (or serving). The bank is only useful in managing the cashflow and liquidity of FIG member enterprises. But it can play an insignificant role in financing the activities of participating enterprises. Such a bank is often small, therefore its role in issuing guarantees, searching for foreign investors, marketing and information services is extremely small. FIGs with such bank positions, as a rule, are distinguished by weak management, which turns into a gradual "eating up" of banks and a sharp reduction in their own financial resources.

2. The second position is that banks perform the role of the financial center of the group, therefore it is entrusted with the functions of financial management of all members of the financial and industrial group. As a rule, this bank is the initiator of the creation of such a financial and industrial group. Practice shows that the greatest economic and financial

the effect for the entire FIG is achieved when the bank has a leading role in the group.

V.A. Tsvetkov presents a more detailed classification of banking FIGs.

The first type of financial and industrial groups is classified by the author as financial and industrial groups, where a bank (or a group of banks) dominates, and other non-bank institutions play a subordinate role. This group may include other financial associations, the purpose of which is to meet the specific needs of both the bank itself and non-financial organizations that are part of FIG.

The second type of banking groups includes a large bank and non-bank financial institutions that provide a full package of services to other members of the group.

The third group includes financial conglomerates and other non-financial organizations. In these groups, the shares of banks in terms of assets and capital turn out to be approximately equal to the corresponding share of non-financial organizations. Banking associations belonging to this group operate on the principle of a financial supermarket. The list of services they can offer to their clients is very wide - from standard bank deposits to trust management and pension insurance.

The fourth group consists of financial associations without a large bank. An insurance company, a pension fund, and stock companies can act as financial organizations.

1. The bank is an agent bank in relation to the members of FIG, i.e. exercises current control over the direction of financial flows of FIG participants.

2. Cross-shareholding. The bank participates in the authorized capital of FIG members.

3. The Bank maintains the current liquidity of FIG members by regrouping liquid funds by issuing short-term loans.

4. Control-oriented funding, ie. "Management by intervention". Unlike the previous principle

Qipa Bank directly intervenes in the decision-making process at the enterprise.

Banks perform a service role, but have full information about other participants in FIGs, are guarantors of transactions of industrial companies participating in FIGs;

Banks are a controlling center that regulates and controls all participants in FIGs, but at the same time they perform the functions of servicing the cash flows of FIG participants;

Banks do not own stakes in FIG members, but carry out control-oriented financing;

Banks do not exercise control over the activities of participants, do not have sufficient capital to carry out large lending operations and issue guarantees; are the settlement center for participating enterprises.

Financial and industrial groups, regardless of the functions performed by banks, can also be classified according to the level of control, which, according to the terms of integration, is formed between the “core” of FIGs and participants. According to this criterion, FIGs can be formed both in “soft” (consortium, association, union) and in “hard” (holding type) variants of the organizational structure. The choice of the type of organizational structure of FIGs is determined by the ownership relations in the group, capital relations between its participants, a set of contractual and informal mutual obligations, the goals of creation and development directions1.

As a result of our research, we have determined that financial and industrial groups can be classified according to the following criteria: leader of a financial and industrial group; functions

a bank in a financial and industrial group; the level of control between the participants of FIGs (Table 2).

Studying the foreign experience of forming financial and industrial groups, we can say that in countries the classification of FIGs is similar to the Russian one. For example, financial and industrial groups existing in the United States can be conditionally divided into two types: the first type includes FIGs, where banks retain control over the activities of participants. Among the most famous banking associations with a set of controlled enterprises, we will single out the groups Chase, Morgan, Mellon, Leman-Goldman, etc. The second group is dominated by industrial enterprises (General Motors, General-Electric, "FordMotors", "AT & T"), but financial structures in them also occupy significant positions ("General Motors-AcceptanceCorp.", "General Electric Capital-Services", "FordMotor-CreditCorp.", "IBM CreditCorp.", Etc.) ...

Currently, the three leading FIGs in Germany are headed by the largest national banks: DeutscheBank AG, DresdnerBank AG and Commerzbank AG, which are the center of financial and industrial groups and represent a wide range of services: consulting services on market analysis and forecasting, information on technical solutions and innovations, financial planning consulting, bank insurance services.

In France, the most widespread are financial and industrial associations created around the largest industrial complexes. The most famous of these are the following groups: ELF Aquitane; Company Française Petrol (petrochemical industry); "Company

generalelectricite "(electronics and electrical engineering), etc.

1 Gorzhankina, S.V. Financial and industrial groups in Russia (analytical review) [Text] / S.V. Gorzhankina // Management in Russia and abroad. - 1998. - No. 6. - S. 23-28.

Table 2 - Classification of types of financial and industrial groups

Comparison feature Types of FIGs

Industrial FIGs

The core of the group is industrial enterprises An enterprise (group of enterprises) of a general civil profile

Enterprise (group of enterprises) of an industrial complex

Enterprise (group of enterprises) of the agro-industrial complex

Research and development enterprise (group of enterprises)

Banking FIGs

Group leader - bank (and / or non-bank organization) Dominant bank

Dominant bank + non-bank financial institutions

Group of large banks-financial supermarkets

Group of non-bank financial institutions

By functions of the bank Passive role - a secondary role of the bank

Active role - the bank is the leader of the group

By the level of control "Soft" PPGs

"Hard" FIGs

Banking institutions that are part of these groups, as a rule, are controlled by the main industrial enterprises of the group. Along with industrial groups in France, trade FIGs also spread, at the origins of which were large trading companies ("Cora", "Intermarch", "Oshan" ), and subsequently controlled a number of banks ("Bank Accord", "Bank Chabrier"), extending their influence over some sectors of the French economy.

Characteristic feature

financial and industrial groups in Sweden is dominated by industrial associations associated with the families of large Swedish businessmen and financiers.

In the Italian economy, the most widespread are banking financial and industrial groups. Among the largest Italian banks that played a decisive role in the formation of financial and industrial groups in Italy, one can name the Italian Credit, Bank of Rome, and Commercial Bank.

Wide use

Economic life is a kind of theater of events in which different groups of people act, participate, and clearly manifest themselves. The totality of socio-economic groups forms a socio-economic structure on the scale of society as a whole, region or settlement, branch of the economy, organization.

Identifying and distinguishing groups in a community is social stratification. Since labor and labor relations are the main components in economic life, the most important objective foundations of socio-economic stratification can be considered:

• employment, its measure and type;

· Position in the social division of labor, i.e. employment in managerial or executive, agricultural or industrial, physical or mental work;

· Features of work in terms of severity, complexity, communication, risk, physical and moral conditions;

· Profession or occupation, i.e. work for hire for wages and requiring professional qualifications or independent work with free income, including independent of education;

· Attitude to ownership of the means of production, its presence or absence, as well as its measure, form and type;

· Attitude to the organization and management of production and labor, its level, economic and legal grounds, formal or informal;

· Income, their measure and sources, legitimacy or morality, stable or unstable nature;

· Education and qualifications, their level, profile, prestige.

Taking into account the listed reasons, a large number of groups can be distinguished. Scientific, business and ordinary versions of their names are unstable over time, often disputed, and sometimes simply do not coincide in many respects. This suggests that the phenomenon of the socio-economic structure is very difficult to reflect in the public consciousness.

Along with the objective, there are also subjective foundations of socio-economic stratification. Here the groups differ in terms of some human qualities that are of great importance for labor and labor relations - categorical orientations towards certain professions; style of behavior and activity in the same types of work; passivity or activity; leadership; obedience to the law; attitudes towards work and wages; morality in labor and property matters; predisposition to individual or joint work. When studying the socio-economic structure, we consider the subjective plan of objective groups and the objective plan of subjective groups. Groups identified on objective grounds develop their own consciousness and behavior, at the same time, groups identified on objective grounds affect the economy, take their objective position in the professional division of labor, achieve a better or worse objective property status precisely because of or due to their psychology ...

Socio-economic stratification has its own complexities and contradictions.

Which socio-economic groups can be identified as significant, worthy of attention, depends not only on the tasks of the analysis, but also on the interests and worldview of the analysts themselves.

Depending on the weight of socio-economic differences, the groups will also be more or less significant. The weight of the same differences is not the same in different cases, i.e. relative. There are specific forms of relativity of socio-economic differences.

1. Many fundamental differences in professions and occupations are erased under the influence of technological progress, as well as in conditions of an acute shortage of jobs; people also attach less importance to these differences if their orientation towards material incentives is strong.

2. Differences in incomes are not so significant if the latter are large for everyone (on average), if there are no opportunities for their realization, or if society, these individuals and groups are especially focused on spiritual values.

3. Employment or unemployment does not so clearly express the socio-economic status of people if unemployment is temporary, or if on average workers receive low wages, or if unemployment benefits are high enough.

4. Education can only mean the professional nature of work and be a small nuance of work and life, or it can play the role of a kind of capital that determines the socio-economic prospects of a person; education in some cases is also a factor that either guarantees employment, or contributes to unemployment, or is irrelevant in this regard.

5. Property has unequal socio-economic significance for people in the context of its democratic or caste distribution, political stability or instability of economic relations; property is also a different opportunity for an individual or group to develop and enlarge their own means of production, stability of income and existence, free labor, domination over people, etc., which indicates the optional attractiveness and profitability of owning and disposing of it.

6. Individual qualities of people are also subject to the principle of relativity. If in some socio-economic systems, situations, specific cases some behavioral and spiritual properties do not matter, in others it is they that determine the status, achievements and comfort of individuals and groups; if in some cases the organization, thanks to the principle of its structure, is able to foresee and neutralize some qualities and actions of people, in others, on the contrary, it can develop and realize them to the maximum.

Depending on what are in a certain community the differences between groups of people associated with labor and labor relations, we can identify and study some strategic models of socio-economic structures.

1. Interclass model. The most significant differences are differences between several very large group-classes, which are in the nature of open contradictions. People themselves are easily aware of and express them. At the same time, each of the group-classes in itself is quite homogeneous and is characterized by a high index of cohesion.

2. Intra-class model. There are no differences between the main groups-classes that could be considered significant and giving rise to contradictions in their relationships. These group-classes have sufficiently "integrated into the system", adapted to each other, divided and defined roles, working conditions and incomes without conflict. At the same time, it is precisely because of this that diversity has increased within them. Contradictory differences between class groups turned out to be transformed into internal problems, into increased differentiation and even conflict.

3. Superclass model. Differences and contradictions are evenly distributed in the external and internal relations of the main groups. At the same time, both the strengthening and the weakening of the differences between these group-classes can be uniform.

The analysis of the socio-economic structure, along with the foundations of stratification, is used and the principle of typology. Social and socioeconomic groups can differ in characteristics that are not associated with direct group-forming factors, but are also important.

Let's highlight the following main typologically different groups.

1. Traditional and new groups. Traditional groups are understood to be long-existing groups that are well integrated into the socio-economic system. Although, of course, some social-professional and social-labor categories of people can remain unfavorable for a relatively long time. New - these are newly emerging groups that do not yet have a certain status. They are promising or unpromising; they will be able to take their place in the socio-economic structure or not; the uncertainty of the status of a new group is simply uncertainty in the conditions of activity, rights and opportunities, maximum possible income, etc. Representatives of the traditional group have a better and more realistic idea of all the circumstances of their existence.

First, dominance can be based on role priority. Let's imagine that some groups are able to make the most significant contribution to economic development, overcoming problem situations in this development, are of particular importance in maintaining production and mastering its new areas and principles of organization. Such groups claim to be patronized by the bureaucracy and privileges, they can actually receive them. The dominant group may be the working class (in the context of industrialization); the peasantry (in conditions of hunger or the orientation of the economy towards agricultural production); engineering and technical intelligentsia (in conditions of mass automation and robotization); managers (in the context of a boom in management culture); economists (in the context of a global revision of the economic system and the search for a new economic philosophy), etc. The phenomenon of dominance can also be clearly manifested at the micro level (for example, in a situation when the importance of suppliers, trade union activists, highly qualified workers, workers of some kind of production that brings special profit to the enterprise, etc.) sharply increases.

From the point of view of economic sociology, such processes in economics as claims to dominance, propaganda of dominance, conflict over dominance, suppression of dominance, etc.are interesting.

In all cases, dominance is accompanied by such social indicators as a special objective weight of roles or functions, the presence of privileges, special prestige, the ability to determine the situation and conditions for everyone, direct dictate, relatively large compared to other labor costs.

3) Marginal groups. There are groups that occupy a borderline, intermediate position in the socio-economic structure, combining the features of several groups (more often the comparative plan is made up of "extremes", two significantly different groups). Intermediate, borderline is marginality. Let us give the following examples of the marginality of groups (marginal groups):

The so-called independent workers, i.e. persons who own property but do not employ hired labor. The limitation of this group manifests itself when it is compared with the owners and workers;

The so-called new poor. There are two meanings of this concept. The new poor are people who do not feel material needs, but lag behind in income from the average standard of living, or people who, for some reason, suddenly found themselves poor, but by inertia retain the self-awareness and consumer attitudes of the middle class;

Categories of workers employed in the city but living in the countryside, or vice versa. This social category combines the features of a peasant and a worker, a rural and urban dweller (in the village, its representatives perceive themselves as city dwellers, and in the city - as villagers, etc.). Sociological studies of this category are relevant and interesting from the point of view of the type of personality and the characteristics of relationships with others;

Some categories of highly skilled workers. Formally, they belong to the working class, but in fact they perform tasks and functions that allow them to perceive themselves as scientific and technical intelligentsia;

The bottom line of leaders. Formally, they relate to the leadership, are perceived as managers and representatives of the apparatus, but in fact they are busy with the problems of direct production, they are connected with grassroots jobs, they know well the tasks and functions of ordinary workers, often even perform them, sometimes communicate with workers more confidentially than with the administration;

Trade union activists. Comparative plan of their marginality - hired workers and employers. Initially, trade union activists are defenders of the interests of the first social category, but practice forces them to understand, respect and take into account the interests of another category, so in reality they have a dual consciousness and self-awareness.

In each of the specific socio-economic groups, you can find the features of borderline, transition. Therefore, the very category of marginality is of particular importance when it comes to significantly different and contradictory features. In the worst case, marginality can turn into a conflict of the subject, the uncertainty and inconsistency of his behavior, his lack of clear value orientations. From a socio-economic point of view, marginality can be both an advantageous and a disadvantageous position, allowing one to simultaneously claim the rights and opportunities of different groups, or even deprive these rights and opportunities as “outsiders”.

4) Problem groups. These include groups that occupy an unfavorable position against the general socio-economic background in terms of generally accepted and obvious socio-economic standards. Problematic can also include those groups whose interests, needs, expectations (assessed as legitimate, normal) have not been realized for a long time. The problem is assessed primarily from the point of view of objective indicators. Subjective indicators do not always adequately reflect the situation, since individuals are capable of both exaggerating and ignoring, not realizing the unfavorable aspects of their situation.

The simplest examples of problem groups are unemployed, interethnic and interregional migrants, working single mothers, working heads of large families, representatives of harmful and difficult work areas, low-paid workers who want to improve their skills, education, but do not have the opportunity to do so, etc.

5) Closed, open, transitional groups. The most common criterion for determining the openness or closedness of groups is the possibility of intergroup movement, leaving the group or entering it. Initially, in sociology, the phenomenon of openness or closedness of groups was considered in the socio-generational aspect. There is a so-called caste society, where each new generation inherits the profession of its parents and the transition from one social and professional group to another is practically impossible, and a free democratic society, where social origin is not dominant, where there is free professional choice and job status depends on personal merit. The first society corresponds to a closed, and the second - an open social and socio-economic structure.

6) Nominal and real groups. The nominal group is based on the similarity of the external characteristics of many people. For example, a nominal group can be made up of all those receiving the same wages, all with the same specialty, all highly qualified workers, all adhering to a given work style, all working in small (or large) enterprises, etc.

A real group is based on real relationships, i.e. actual contact and interaction, frequent face-to-face communication, sometimes coexistence at the same time in the same place. In this case, the magnitude of such commonality may not matter.

There are no absolutely insurmountable differences between real and nominal groups. Under certain conditions, a nominal group can become real if “purely external signs” are a reason for people to unite in a community to express solidarity, mutual support, and joint actions at least for a while. Likewise, a real group, if internal ties disintegrate in it, turns into a nominal group of people who are only formally considered to be something single, whole. A similar fate can befall both small production teams and large economic associations.