Lagash is a wealthy city. Brief descriptions of the Sumerian cities What was found in the city of Lagash

Lagash is a rich city

Let's leave for a while the beautiful, rich and crowded city of Ur. Now it is a small railway station about 150 km northwest of Basra and 15 km from the modern Euphrates. Four and a half millennia ago, Ur looked completely different than it does today. It was located near the sea and was connected with it by a river along which laden barges sailed. Where the desert now stretches, fields of wheat and barley were golden, groves of palm trees and fig trees were green. In the temples, the priests offered prayers and performed ceremonies, supervised the work of craft workshops and the order in overcrowded barns. And below, at the foot of the platforms, from where the temples rushed into the sky, the industrious people were busy, thanks to whose efforts this city became powerful and rich, to the surprise and envy of its neighbors. Let's leave Ur in its heyday, when the rulers of the first dynasty reigned there, and go to the northeast, where the city of Girsu, which until recently was identified with Lagash, is located 75 km from Ur. Scholars now believe that Girsu was the capital of the city-state of Lagash.

French archaeologists - from de Sarzek and de Genuyac to Andre Parro - carefully examined Tello (as this settlement is now called). Since 1877 archaeological work has been systematically carried out in Tello, thanks to which the history of this city is known in every detail. At the same time, excavations began at El-Hibba, later identified with Lagash. There is not a word about Lagash in the "Royal Lists". This can only be surprising. After all, we are talking about a city-state and a dynasty that undoubtedly played a significant role in the history of Sumer. True, in those years when this city had not yet achieved glory, it stood somewhat apart from historical events. Lagash was an important transit point on the waterway linking the Tigris with the Euphrates. Vessels arriving from the sea went through it or unloaded here. The tablets found during excavations testify to the lively trade that was carried on by the inhabitants of the city. As in other cities, he ruled here in the name of the lord of the city, the god of war, Ningirsu, ensi. Political and economic life was concentrated in temples dedicated to Ningirsu, his divine wife Baba (Bau), the goddess of legislation Nanshe, the goddess Geshtinanna, who acted as the “scribe of the country without return,” and Gatumdug, the mother goddess of the city. The settlement arose here in the era of El Obeid. In subsequent years, the city was rebuilt, the network of irrigation and shipping canals expanded, and economic power grew. According to researchers, Lagash has competed with the neighboring city of Umma since time immemorial, and wars between these two states have been fought since the dawn of history.

In the middle of the III millennium BC. e. the period of rapid prosperity of Lagash begins. Ensi Urnanshe rules the city at this time. Urnanshe is depicted on a forty-centimeter bas-relief that adorned the temple; this bas-relief was presented to the temple as a votive (initiatory) gift. The ruler, dressed in a traditional Sumerian skirt, carries on his shaved head a basket with mortar for building a temple. Urnanshe, who, like Aanepada from Ur, has taken the title of lugal (“big man” = king), takes part in the solemn ceremony together with his family. He is accompanied by a daughter and four sons, whose names are indicated on the bas-relief, among them - Akurgal, heir to the throne and father of the famous Eanatum. The figure of the daughter, whose name is Lidda, in a robe with a cape thrown over her left shoulder, is much larger than the figures of the royal sons. Lidda follows her father directly, which may be evidence of the relatively high position of the Sumerian woman in public life (remember Queen Ku-Baba) and the economy (see below). In the lower part of the bas-relief, Urnanshe is depicted sitting on a throne (?) with a goblet in his hands. Behind him stands the cupbearer with a jug, in front of him is the first minister, making some kind of message, and three dignitaries named by name.

The Urnanshe inscriptions emphasize the special merits of this ruler in the construction of temples and canals. The same is reported in the later inscriptions of his successors. However, Urnanshe did not limit his activities to the construction of temples, granaries and the expansion of the network of waterways. As the founder of the dynasty, he had to take care of the security of the city. The rival Umma was very close, at any moment an attack by the Elamites could occur because of the Tigris. The temples, however, did not always agree to allocate the funds necessary for the implementation of the plans of the king. Thus, the interests of the king and the temples did not always coincide. The Ensi needed their own funds to consolidate their political power. We have already encountered the first manifestations of the independence of the princely power and its separation from the power of the priests (the construction in Kish of a royal palace independent of the temple). The king inevitably had to begin to appropriate for himself a part of the property and income, which, according to tradition, belonged inseparably to God, which were disposed of by the temples. In Lagash, this process was probably started by Urnanshe.

There is no doubt that it was Urnanshe, who built on a large scale and imported timber from the Mash Mountains and building stone for the needs of construction, it was he, in front of whose statue in the temple of Ningirsu after death sacrifices were made, laid the foundations of the political and economic power of his dynasty. This made it possible for its third representative, the grandson of Urnanshe Eanatum (about 2400 BC), to make an attempt to extend his power to the states neighboring Lagash. After Eanatum, a white stone stele excavated by de Sarzek remained. This heavily destroyed more than one and a half meter slab is covered with reliefs and inscriptions. One of its fragments depicts a flock of kites tormenting the bodies of fallen soldiers. Hence the name: "Stela of kites." Letters report that the stele was erected by Eanatum in honor of the victory over the city of Umma. They tell about the favor of the gods to Eanatum, how he defeated the ruler of Umma, restored the borders between Umma and Lagash, defined by King Mesilim of Kish, and how, having made peace with Umma, conquered other cities. Based on the text carved on the Stele of the Kites, as well as the inscription left by his nephew Entemena, it can be concluded that Eanatum stopped the encroachments of the Elamites on the eastern border of Sumer, subjugated Kish and Akshak, and maybe even reached Mari. It is difficult to find a person more worthy of the title of king than Eanatum!

A powerful figure of a man with a large net that entangled his enemies is carved on the stele. (Scholars debate whether this is the image of Ningirsu, the god of war, or the victorious king.) Then we see a scene where this man (or god) on a war chariot rushes into the maelstrom of battle, dragging close ranks of warriors with him. This column of fighters, armed with long spears and huge shields that cover the body, forming an almost solid wall, makes a strong impression. In another scene, the king is depicted rewarding his faithful warriors.

Further events played out already during the reign of the next ruler of Lagash - Entemena, whose chroniclers compiled the most complete historical "review" - a document rare for that distant era.

Before starting the story about the war waged by Entemena and the events that preceded it, let's get acquainted with the text of the inscription immortalized on two clay cylinders.

Enlil [the main deity of the Sumerian pantheon], the king of all lands, the father of all gods, determined the border for Ningirsu [the patron god of Lagash] and for Shara [the patron god of Umma] with his indestructible word and Mesilim, the king of Kish, measured it according to the word of Sataran [ and] erected a stele there. [However] Ush, the ishakku of Umma, violated the decision [of the gods], and the word [agreement between people], tore out the [border] stele and entered the plain of Lagash.

[Then] Ningirsu, Enlil's best warrior, fought the people of Umma, obeying his [Enlil's] sure word. At the word of Enlil, he threw a great net over them and heaped their skeletons here and there over the plain (?). [As a result] Eanatum, the ishakku of Lagash, the uncle of Entemena, the ishakku of Lagash, determined the border together with Enakalli, the ishakku of Umma; made a [border] ditch from the [channel] Idnun to Guedinna; inscribed steles along the moat; put the stele of Mesilima in its [former] place, [but] did not enter the plain of Umma. He [then] built there Imdubba for Ningirsu at Namnundakigarra, [as well as] a sanctuary for Enlil, a sanctuary for Ninhursag [the Sumerian 'mother' goddess], a sanctuary for Nipgirsu [and] an altar for Utu [the sun god].

This is followed by a short passage, interpreted differently by various researchers: according to some, it refers to the tribute that Eanatum imposed on the vanquished; others believe that we are talking about rent for the cultivation of fields belonging to Lagash.

Ur-Lumma, ishakku of Umma, deprived the frontier ditch of Ningirsu [and] the frontier ditch of Nanshe of water, dug out the stelae [of the frontier ditch] [and] set them on fire, destroyed the sacred [?] sanctuaries of the gods erected in Namnunda-kigarra, received [help] from foreign countries and [finally] crossed the frontier moat of Ningirsu; Eanatum fought with him near Gana Ugigga, [where] the fields and farms of Ningirsu are, [and] Entemena, beloved son of Eanatum, defeated him. [Then] Ur-Lumma fled, [and] he [Entemena] exterminated [the troops of Umma] to [the] Umma itself. [Besides], his [Ur-Lumma] select detachment of 60 warriors he exterminated [?] on the banks of the Lumma-Girnunta canal. [And] the bodies of his [Ur-Lumma] people he [Entemen] threw on the plain [to be eaten by beasts and birds] and [then] heaped up their skeletons [?] in five [different places].

After this, there is a description of the second phase of the war, when the priest Il acts as an adversary of Entemena - in all likelihood, a usurper who seized power in Umma.

Entemena, the ishakku of Lagash, whose name was spoken by Ningirsu, built this [borderline] ditch from the Tigris to the [channel] Idnun according to the indestructible word of Enlil, according to the indestructible word of Ningirsu [and] according to the indestructible word of Nanshe [and] restored it for his beloved king Ningirsu and his beloved queen Nanshe, having built a brick foundation for Namnund-kigarra. May Shulutula, the [personal] god of Entemena, the ishakku of Lagash, to whom Enlil gave the scepter, to whom Enki [the Sumerian god of wisdom] gave wisdom, whom Nanshe keeps in [his] heart, the great ishakku Ningirsu, who received the word of the gods, be the intercessor, [praying] for the life of Entemena before Ningirsu and Nanshe to the remotest times!

A man from Umma who [ever] crosses the border ditch of Ningirsu [and] the border ditch of Nanshe in order to take possession of the fields and farms by force - whether he is [really] a citizen of Umma or a foreigner - may Enlil strike him, may Ningirsu throw a large net and let his mighty hand [and] his mighty foot fall on him, let the people of his city rise up against him and let him prostrate in the middle of his city!

And now let's try to present this confusing text, in which the deeds of the gods and the actions of people are so closely intertwined that the picture of historical events turned out to be rather obscure, to present the language of historical science, in accordance with the interpretation of modern scientists.

In a long-standing dispute between the cities of Lagash and Umma, King Mesilim of Kish once acted as an arbitrator.

Lagash historians thus confirm the fact that Mesilim had power over all of Sumer in his hands.) Mesilim, as a sovereign, determined the border between Lagash and Umma and, as a sign of its inviolability, placed his memorial stele with an inscription there. This was supposed to put an end to the strife between the rival cities. Some time later, already after the death of Mesilim and, apparently, not long before Urnanshe came to power, the ensi Ush, who ruled in Umma, invaded the territory of Lagash and captured Guedinna. It is possible that the area with this name before the intervention of Mesilim belonged to the Umma. During the reign of Urnanshe, the power of Lagash increased, and it became possible to take revenge on the neighboring city-state. Urnanshe's grandson Eanatum decided to expel the conquerors from his land. He defeated the ensi of Umma Enakali and restored the former borders. (The ditches that separated these two small states also served to irrigate the fields.)

Apparently, at the same time, Eanatum decided to extend his power to other cities. For this purpose, he needed first to ensure the safety of his city. Wanting to appease the inhabitants of Umma, he allowed them to cultivate the land in the territory of Lagash. However, they had to give part of the harvest to the ruler of Lagash for the use of the land. Evidently, Eanatum's hegemony did not have a strong enough foundation, because at the end of his life the population of Umma seemed to revolt. Their ensi Urluma refused to pay the tribute imposed on Umma and invaded the territory of Lagash. He destroyed the boundary pillars, set fire to the steles of Mesilim and Eanatum, glorifying the victors of his ancestors, destroyed the buildings and altars built by Eanatum. In addition, he called on foreigners to help him. We don’t know exactly who, but it’s not so difficult to guess: along the borders of Sumer there were enough states whose rulers looked with satisfaction at the internal strife of the Sumerians and were ready to invade their country at any moment. It could be both the Elamites and the inhabitants of Hamazi. And in the north at that time the future powerful state of the Akkadians was already taking shape.

However, Urlum was not lucky. Entemena, still a very young commander, won a brilliant victory: he utterly defeated the enemy, destroying most of his troops, and put the rest to flight. (The number of participants in the battle can be judged by the figure given in the chronicle - 60 soldiers killed over the canal.) Entemena most likely did not enter the Umma, but limited himself to restoring the former border. Meanwhile, the situation in the Umma - whether as a result of the death of the defeated ruler, or as a result of some kind of rebellion - has changed. Power passed to the former high priest of the city of Zabalam named Il. (According to some historians, Zabalam was located on the territory of Umma. On the other hand, it is possible that we are talking about a city located near Uruk. If we accept the latter, then Umma already at that time was a powerful state that owned a vast territory.)

Silver vase Entemena

Like Urluma, Ile did not attach too much importance to frontier agreements. He refused to fulfill his obligations, and when Entemena, through ambassadors, demanded an explanation from him and called for obedience, he made claims regarding the territory of Guedinna. No matter how confusing the text compiled by the chroniclers of Entemena (we omitted the fragment on the disputes between Entemena and Ile), one can guess that the matter did not come to a war, the truce was concluded on the basis of a decision imposed by some third party - apparently, the same foreign ally of the Ummah. The former border was restored, but the citizens of Ummah did not suffer any punishment: they not only did not have to pay debts or tribute, they did not even have to take care of supplying water to the agricultural areas affected by the war.

The events described relate to one of the wars waged by Entemena. And there were many of them: the ruler of Lagash wanted to keep the inheritance he received. To keep the dependent city-states in obedience, he also had to play a diplomatic game. Entemena, like Eanatum, was a skilled politician. Not only out of love for the gods, they erected numerous temples. It was politics: with their help it was easier to win the sympathy of citizens who deeply revered their gods. Entemena's inscriptions tell of the construction of temples for such gods as Nanna (god of the moon), Enki, Enlil. From this list, we can conclude that the power of Untemena extended to Uruk, Eredu, Nippur and other cities. The following facts speak about the influence of Entemena on a number of city-states of Sumer: in Nippur, a seventy-six-centimeter miniature diorite statue of this ruler was found, in Uruk - an inscription about the conclusion of a fraternal alliance between Entemena and the ruler of Uruk, Lugal-kingeneshdudu, and about the construction of the temple of Inanna undertaken by Entemena. There is a lot of evidence that Entemena was actively involved in the construction of canals not only in his native Lagash, but also beyond.

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The settlement of Lagash appeared, apparently, at the turn of the 5th - 4th millennium BC. e.

For a long time it was believed that the ancient city of Lagash corresponded to the ancient city of Tello (ancient Girsu), but now scientists localize it in Tel El-Hibba, a grandiose city of 480 hectares, 20 km southeast of Tello and 15 km east of the modern city of Shatra .

The Sumerian kings of the country of Lagash (SHIR.BUR.LA ki) ruled over an area ca. 3000 km2, south of the country of Sumer proper.

Little is known about the ancient history of Lagash. In the Early Dynastic period, the nome capital was moved from the city of Lagash (lit. "Place of Crows", modern El-Hibba) in Girsu (modern Tello), where the temple of the supreme deity of this nome, Nin-Ngirsu, was built. In addition to the cities of Girsu and Lagash proper (or Urukuga lit. "Holy City"- the epithet of Lagash), this nome also included a number of more or less large settlements, apparently walled: Nina (or Siraran), Kinunir, Uru, Kiesh, E-Ninmar, Guaba, etc. Political and economic life was concentrated in the temples dedicated to Nin-Ngirsu, his divine wife Baba (Bau), the goddess of legislation Nanshe, the goddess Geshtinanna, who acted "scribe of the country without age", and Gatumdug, the mother goddess of Lagash.

The Lagash rulers bore the title of ensi and received from the council or the people's assembly the title of lugal (king) only temporarily, along with special powers, during an important military campaign or any other important events.

1st dynasty of Lagash

The first king of Lagash known in history is Ur-Nanshe. He was also the ancestor of the 1st dynasty of Lagash. Ur-Nanshe laid the foundations for the future power of Lagash, as he contributed to the strengthening of agriculture, the construction of defensive walls around ancient Lagash, and the construction of new temples.

In the 25th - 24th centuries. BC e. there is a strengthening of the nome Lagash. At that time, the I dynasty of the rulers of Lagash ruled there. In terms of wealth, the Lagash state was second only to the South Sumerian state of Uru-Uruk. Lagash port Guaba (lit. "Sea shore") competed with Ur in maritime trade with neighboring Elam and India. The rulers of Lagash, no less than others, dreamed of hegemony in Lower Mesopotamia, but the neighboring city of Umma blocked their path to the center of the country. With Umma, in addition, for many generations there were bloody disputes over the border between these two nomes, the fertile region of Guedenu.

Under the king of Lagash, Eanatum, who ruled around 2400 BC. e. Lagash was able to win this fight and conquer the Ummah. The Lagashians were able to subjugate the neighboring cities of Ur, Adab, Akshak and also make trips to Elam.

Eanatum

Eanatum can be considered the next great king of Lagash. Under him, Lagash began to intensify. During his reign, the old enemy of Lagash, the city of Umma, broke away from him and began a war with the Lagash people. Two ensi (rulers) of Umma, Ur-Luma and Enkale, made military campaigns against Lagash, but both ended in failure. Eanatum conquered the Ummians and again forced them to pay tribute to Lagash.

Eanatum also made several military campaigns in Mesopotamia, conquering the cities of Uruk and Ur. He soon had to face a dangerous coalition of northern Sumerian cities and Elamites. The cities of Akshak, and the Elamites joined forces and attacked Lagash. Eanatum was able to defeat the enemies and drive the Elamites away, and brought the Sumerian cities to submission. When he died, Lagash stood at the pinnacle of power in Mesopotamia.

After the death of Eanatum, his brother Enannatum I, then his son Enmetena, assumed power in the country. Around 2350 B.C. e. he had to wage repeated wars with the Ummah, as the Ummians continued to quarrel with Lagash because of the Gueden strip. Enmetena was able to defeat Umma and install his own ruler there. But the Ummians, apparently, managed to maintain their independence and continued to be at enmity with Lagash.

Priests of the god Nin-Ngirsu

At that time, the second most powerful persons in Lagash were the high priests of the god Nin-Ngirsu. After the suppression of the clan of King Ur-Nanshe, the supreme power in Lagash (about 2340 BC) was taken over by a certain Dudu, who was a priest of the god Nin-Ngirsu. His heirs Enentarzi and Lugaland were very unpopular rulers, their reign in Lagash remained a very bad memory. Both Enentarzy and Lugalanda were more concerned about increasing their wealth. At least 2/3 of the temple households passed into the possession of the ruler - ensi, his wife and children. Lagashians were subjected to heavy taxes and taxes, which ruined the population. The dominion of the priests lasted until 2318 BC. e., when Lugalanda was deposed by the new king of Lagash - the reformer Uruinimgina.

Uruinimgina's reign

The coming of power of Uruinimgin (who ruled in 2318 BC - 2311 BC) was, although bloodless, but rather violent. The previous ensi Lugaland, who had ruined the country with extortions, was deposed by him. The simple population of Lagash apparently welcomed this change of power. Uruinimgina was indeed quite a popular ruler. He reduced many taxes and did not allow officials to rob the people. He also returned many privately occupied lands to the temples, which, apparently, could help appease the priestly class of Lagash. Under Uruinimgin, the Lagashians again waged heavy wars with their longtime rivals, the Ummians, from whom Lagash suffered several humiliating defeats. Although these wars ended in nothing, Lagash was rather weakened. When in 2311 BC. e. the troops of the great king Sharrumken (Sargon the Great), the founder of the Akkadian state, invaded Lagash, Lagash did not have the strength to successfully resist the invasion. Ngirsa - the capital of Lagash was captured, and Uruinimgina himself went missing. Lagash fell under the rule of Akkad for more than a century. The 1st Dynasty of Lagash thus ceased to exist.

Subjugation to Akkad

The reign of the Akkadian kings was quite cruel, they controlled almost the entire region of Mesopotamia. Many Sumerian cities were also under the rule of Akkad. However, the Sumerians conquered by them continued to resist. There were frequent uprisings against the Akkadians, to which Lagash joined. However, these uprisings were for the most part not successful. The Sumerians were constantly defeated, and the Akkadian kings did not hesitate to punish the rebels. Rimush is considered the most cruel, under him Lagash was greatly devastated and lost many people. However, the Akkadians held power in Lagash for little more than a century. After the death of their last king, Sharkalisharri, and the collapse of the Akkadian state under the onslaught of the Gutian tribes, Lagash was able to regain its independence again.

2nd Dynasty of Lagash

The first post-Akkadian rulers of Lagash were rather insignificant figures, and little information about them has been preserved. The heyday of Lagash begins with the king of Ur-Baba, who was able to conquer Ur and Uruk. The last ensi of Lagash, Nammahani, was an ally of the Gutian king Tirikan in his historical battle with the king of Uruk, Utuhengal. This battle took place around 2109 BC. e. The Kuti suffered a crushing defeat from the Uruks, and lost their influence in Mesopotamia. The power of Lagash was also undermined, but the Lagash people managed to maintain their independence. However, a few years after the defeat, Lagash was still conquered by the king of Ur - Ur-Nammu. Lagash fell under the rule of the Urts and more, as an independent state, was not revived.

Literature

Sauvage, Martin, Lagaš (ville) // Dictionnaire de la Civilization Mésopotamienne. Sous la direction de Francis Joannes. Paris, 2001. P.453.
Lafont, Bertrand, Lagaš (rois) // Dictionnaire de la Civilization Mésopotamienne. Sous la direction de Francis Joannes. Paris, 2001. P.453-456.

Eredu (Priest City)
In translation, it probably means “good city”. The place from which both the material and sacred history of Mesopotamia began. It was located in the extreme south, at the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates into the Persian Gulf. Back in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. here appeared the first great sanctuary, from which only the foundation has come down to us. After 500 years, the sanctuary became the temple of the god Enki. It was believed that all the secrets of the world and the sources of life come from Eredu, since this place is the entrance to the mysterious watery abyss - the Abzu. That is why the temple of Enki was called the “House of the Abzu”. The life of the city of Eredu was short-lived. Already at the beginning of the 3rd millennium, citizens left it and moved to the more northern Ur and Uruk. Eredu has become a ghost town and a symbol city. All the priests of the cult of Enki, who lived in various cities, called themselves "priests from Eredu." Why the city was deserted is unclear. Either the soils became saline, or after the retreat of the bay, a drought began. The Sumerians themselves explained the migration of inhabitants from Eredu to Uruk by the fact that Inanna stole ME from her father and transported them to her city on a boat. Not a single inscription from Eredu has come down to us.

Uruk (Warrior City)
In Sumerian they pronounced “unug”, but what people called the city that way and what it means is unknown. In ancient times, Uruk was said to be the first fenced settlement in the world, and therefore the first city. No one can either confirm or deny this legend. However, we know for certain that writing appeared precisely in Uruk and that it was Uruk that was the first center of the military-political union of the Sumerian cities. The heroes of Uruk are the powerful priest-kings of the Sumerian epic Enmerkar, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh, who fought with the tribes of the Iranian Highlands. Under Gilgamesh, Uruk became the main city of Sumer. The Uruk masters are the heavenly gods An and Inanna (Venus), and the ancestor of the royal dynasty of Uruk was the sun god Utu. In Uruk, the first House of the People's Assembly known to archaeologists appears, which speaks of the beginnings of communal democracy. The ruler at that time was not called the word lugal “king”, but bore the title en “owner, lord”. It was the title of the priest-wife of Inanna in a sacred marriage. Uruk is not only the first capital of the Sumerians and a symbol of their military superiority, but also a long-lived city in which the religious and written tradition was not interrupted until the era of Rome.

Ur (Merchant City)
In Sumerian "Urim", the translation is unknown. A city that was twice the capital of a powerful kingdom. At the beginning of Sumerian history, there was a well-established economy and a scribal school that trained cadres of accounting bureaucrats. The owner of Ur, the moon god Nanna, patronized the account of time and accurate knowledge. Maritime transit trade caused the accumulation of countless treasures - gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian, silver, from which the best craftsmen made jewelry, musical instruments and weapons for the royal family. All these masterpieces were discovered in the burial of Queen Puabi, who was accompanied to the next world by numerous servants. The royal power of Ur has always been strong and rich. In addition, Ur was a clear favorite of the gods: after many centuries, he was given unlimited power over all the cities and peoples of Mesopotamia. The era of the III dynasty of Ur was the heyday of the Sumero-Akkadian culture to the same extent that it can be considered the era of the crisis of the Sumerian civilization. After the collapse of the last Sumerian state, Ur again lived well at the expense of the sea and strong merchant traditions. You can call it a city of educated businessmen.

Shuruppak (City of the Immortal)
We know about this city either from economic texts, or from myths and later legends. It is known that in the earliest antiquity its rulers were elected people and ruled in turn (the order passed from quarter to quarter). The texts of the local scribal school arrived: proverbs, fragments of myths and lists of gods. But the most famous story associated with Shuruppak is, of course, the story of the flood and the miraculous salvation of the righteous, which the gods made immortal. The name of the righteous was Ziusudra (“Life (for) long days”) and he was the ruler of Shuruppak. This city was not noticed in political activity, and what its mistress Sud was doing - judging by the lack of information, even the Sumerians themselves did not know about this.

Nippur (Judge City)
Nippur was the geographically central city of Sumer, so it became cosmogonically central, uniting all other cities under its sacred authority (like Athens in Greece). The master of Nippur is the mighty Enlil, the god of air, nature and world order. In Nippur, an assembly of the gods met, choosing a king for the Country. Important legislative decisions were made in Nippur. Political activity is uncharacteristic for Nippur; there have never been kings in it. But here was the largest library and the most famous scribe school. We owe all our knowledge about the Sumerian religion to Nippur school teachers who worked part-time as state or temple scribes. It was they who brought to us all the myths and epic texts of the Sumerians, proverbs, spells and fragments of rituals.

Lagash (City builder and chronicler)
It means "storeroom" in translation. Lagash is the only one of the significant Sumerian cities located on a canal diverted from the Tigris, and not from the Euphrates. Therefore, he was always in some isolation from his neighbors, which, however, only added to his ambitions. The owner of the city is the patron of creation (mainly construction and agriculture) Ningirsu, also known as the patron of defensive war. Lagash is a city through whose history we have to perceive the entire early Sumerian history. This is due to the fact that chronicle writing was invented in Lagash and, moreover, all grammatical forms were carefully written out (which eliminated ambiguity in reading, although it did not help to eliminate ambiguity in interpretation). A lot has always been built in Sumer, but only in Lagash they wrote so much about what they built. We started with a simple enumeration of objects, then added to this list a list of our military and political prowess, then we began to write in detail about laws. Thus began the historical texts. Gudea added to the construction and political part a description of his sacred dreams and travels in which he met with the gods. The result was a hymn that glorifies both the gods and the ruler at the same time. Later, full-fledged royal hymns arose from this, singing the deified rulers of Sumer. In the early Sumerian era, the city lived excellently, many of its rulers were kings of all Sumer. Under the Sargonides, Lagash did not lose its influence on the political life of the country. In the era of the rule of the Gutians, Lagash lived very richly and prospered, but after the defeat of the invaders, he was accused of treason and excluded from the general Sumerian list of royal dynasties. Since then, Lagash has failed to regain its political and ideological power.

Umma (Usurper City)
This strange city, a neighbor and enemy of Lagash, went down in history with only two unseemly acts. First, its rulers illegally seized the territory that belonged to Lagash by agreement. This caused a great war in which the Ummah invariably lost. And then, when Lagash was at the height of its political power, the king of Umma Lugalzaggesi declared himself the king of all Sumer and attacked his neighbors. Lagash then suffered greatly, but was eventually avenged: the Akkadian ruler Sargon brought down the pride of the Ummian usurper, first defeating him in a fair fight, and then ritually depriving him of power. However, Umma was well known after the Sargonids, and even in the era of the III dynasty of Ur. It was a medium-sized city with a well-developed industry. Its owner was the god Shara, who was somewhat reminiscent of Ningirsu.

Kish (politic city)
The northernmost city in Southern Mesopotamia. Sumerian, Semitic, and possibly Elamite were also spoken here. It entered the history of the country as a city-politician. It was here that the first royal inscription was composed, quite short. But it was the very first historical document that read: "Enmebaragesi, king of Kish." And the royal title (lugal) also appears for the first time in this city. To be king at first meant "bearing the title of the rulers of Kish." An old retinue song about Gilgamesh says that once it was Kish that was the main city of Sumer. The Kish king disposed of the citizens of all other cities, which were considered the younger brothers of Kish. But the ruler of Uruk, Gilgamesh, did not like this fate, he declared war on Kish and won it. Since then, Uruk became the main city, but Kish was held in high esteem for a long time. In the Assyro-Babylonian time, as a result of a language game, the title "king of Kish" (lugal-Kisha) began to be translated "king of the universe" (shar kishshati). So the provincial Kish acquired cosmic significance.

Babylon (City of Peace)
The eternal city, replaced at its post by Rome. Babylon has been known since the Sumerian times. It was then called in Semitic Babbilum "carrying (heavy)" (probably because of its powerful and rich port). From the name it follows that it was founded either by the Akkadians or the Western Semites (Amorites). However, the Sumerians also considered it theirs, so they called it ka2-dingir-ra, which in Semitic translation should sound like bab ilani "gate of the gods" (such a folk etymology). In the Book of Genesis, as is well known, the name Babylon is derived from the root "to confuse", because it was in this place that the Lord mixed the languages of the builders of the great tower. But this is already quite far from the truth. Babylon is a city of powerful royal power, great laws, literary works and scientific works famous throughout the world. He flourished in the era of two reigns. Under Hammurabi (XVIII century), Babylon was considered the center of the universe, and its god Marduk was the king of the gods and the wisest of the gods. Under Nebuchadnezzar the Second (VI century), Babylon was the cultural capital of the world and a city of great military glory. Babylon experienced its last rise under Alexander the Great, when at the end of the 4th century. BC. became the capital of his empire and the deathbed of the great commander. Babylon is the Laws of Hammurabi, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Epic of Gilgamesh and the biblically deep reflections of the Innocent Sufferer about the place of man in the world.

Nineveh
The city was the capital of three kings, of which the first - Sennacherib - cut out and destroyed Babylon, the second - Esarhaddon - conquered Egypt, and the third - Ashurbanipal - destroyed Elam. The best masters of relief came to the capital of the empire, temples and scribe schools prepared cadres no worse. Therefore, it was in Nineveh that the arts and sciences flourished extraordinarily. The military power of Assyria and the valor of its kings were glorified, the literary texts of antiquity were rewritten and updated. It was the Nineveh library of Ashurbanipal that was the largest and most diverse book collection of the ancient world (which was later surpassed only by the Library of Alexandria). Nineveh did not live even a century, falling in 612 under the blows of the Medes and Babylonians. The terrible capital was cursed by all the Jewish prophets and so completely forgotten that it was dug up only at the beginning of the 19th century AD.

Lagash

In the middle of the third millennium BC. e. (2540-2370 BC) Lagash was headed by strong rulers who managed to unite a number of neighboring regions under their rule. The struggle of Lagash with neighboring cities had as its goal the maximum unification of the regions around one center. The foundations of the economic and political power of Lagash were laid under Ur-nansh, who can be considered the founder of the first historical dynasty of Lagash. The outward expression of the flourishing of Lagash was the extensive building activity begun by Ur-nanshe. On one relief, preserved from this time, the king himself is depicted, who, with his participation, as it were, consecrates the work on the solemn laying of the temple. The king himself carries a basket of bricks on his head. In solemn ceremony, he is followed by his children, officials and servants. In his inscriptions, Ur-nanshe describes the construction of the temple, the construction of canals, and gifts to sanctuaries.

Lagash reached its highest power under King Eannatum, who waged stubborn wars with neighboring cities and subjugated vast territories to his power. Eannatum not only liberates Lagash from the domination of Kish, but even annexes this Akkadian state to it. He then conquers Ur, thus ending the independent rule of the kings of the First Dynasty of Ur. Finally, he subdues Lagash Uruk, Larsa and Eris, thus conquering the entire southern part of Mesopotamia. Eannatum waged a particularly stubborn struggle with the neighboring city of Umma. Ush, the ruler of Umma, attacked Lagash with the support of the kings of Opis and Kish. However, the war ended unsuccessfully for the Umma. Eannatum defeated the troops of Ush and his allies and invaded the borders of Umma. He imprinted his victory over Umma on a monument, which has been preserved in fragments to this day and was called the “Kite Stele”.

An ancient artist depicted on this victory monument a battlefield littered with the corpses of slain enemies, over which kites circle. There are scenes of the burial of the dead, sacrifices of the captives, and finally, the winner himself - Eannatum, riding in a chariot at the head of a detachment of heavily armed warriors. The inscription on the monument describes the victory of the Lagash army and points to the real results of this war. The inhabitants of Umma, utterly defeated, swore an oath not to invade the boundaries of Lagash and pay tribute to the gods of Lagash in grain. Other inscriptions of this time confirm the significant scope of the aggressive policy of Eannatum, who defeated the kings of the Akkadian cities of Kish and Opis, as well as over the Elamite princes. Eannatum proudly narrates that he “conquered Elam, heaped mountains that cause astonishment (grave mounds) ... crushed Elam's head; Elam was driven back to his own country.”

Thus, in this era, the Sumerian influence penetrates into the regions of Middle Mesopotamia and even into impregnable mountainous Elam.

The military policy of Eannatum was continued by Entemena, who managed to strengthen the dominance of Lagash over Umma, Ur, Eridu and Nippur, as well as repel the invasion of the Elamites. Among the historical documents of this time, of particular interest is the Entemena inscription, the oldest diplomatic document, which figuratively describes the previous diplomatic relations and wars between Lagash and Umma. The document fixes the terms of peace and territorial boundaries established after the victory of Entemena over the Ummah. Etemena threatens the vanquished with cruel punishments if they violate the treaty.

Lower Mesopotamia is the land of the Sumerians. By the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. There are several city-states here. Lagash, Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Larsa, Nippur. They were located on natural hills and were surrounded by walls. Approximately 40-50 thousand people lived in each of them. The rulers of these cities bore the title lugal ("big man") or ensi ("priest-lord").

In the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. Lagash becomes the leader among the cities of the Sumerians. In the middle of the 25th century The army of the city of Lagash in a fierce battle defeated its eternal enemy - the city of Umma. During the six-year reign of Uruinimgina, ensi of Lagash (2318-2312 BC), important social reforms were carried out, which are the oldest legal acts in the field of socio-economic relations today. Uruinimgina proclaimed the slogan: "Let the strong not offend widows and orphans!" On behalf of the supreme god of the city of Lagash, he guaranteed the rights of citizens, abolished some taxes on artisans, reduced the amount of labor service for the construction of irrigation facilities, eliminated polyandry (polyandry) - a relic of matriarchy.

However, the heyday of the city of Lagash did not last long. The ruler of Umma Lugalzagesi, having made an alliance with Uruk, attacked Lagash and defeated it. Subsequently, Lugalzagesi extended his rule over almost all of Sumer. Uruk became the capital of his state. And Lagash was slowly fading away, although its name is still occasionally found in documents up to the reign of his successor Samsuiluna. But gradually clay and sand swallowed up the city of Lagash.

In 1877, in the desert tract of Tello, under a whole complex of swollen clay hills, the Vice-Consul of France Sarzek discovered the ruined Lagash, and in it - a huge, well-systematized archive, consisting of more than 20 thousand cuneiform tablets and lying in the ground for almost four millennium. It was one of the largest libraries of antiquity.

As it turned out, Lagash was in many ways atypical for the cities of Sumer: it was a cluster of settlements that surrounded the previously established main core of the city. In the city of Lagash, a whole gallery of sculptures of the rulers of the city was discovered, including the now famous group of sculptural portraits of the ruler Gudea. From the inscriptions carved on them and from the texts of clay tablets, scientists learned the names of dozens of kings and other prominent people of that time who lived in the 3rd millennium BC.

Other bas-reliefs in the city of Lagash depict bulls with human heads. In some bulls, the entire upper body is human. These are echoes of the ancient agricultural cult of the bull.

Sarzek's discovery threw off the veil of secrecy that shrouded the Sumerian civilization. Until recently, there were fierce disputes about the Sumerians in the scientific world, some scientists rejected the very fact of the existence of this people. And here not only the Sumerian city of Lagash was found, but also a huge amount of cuneiform texts in the Sumerian language!

In 1903, the French archaeologist Gaston Croet continued to excavate the city of Lagash. These studies of Lagash have enriched science with numerous new discoveries. Even today, when more than a hundred years have passed since the discovery of the city of Lagash, these finds have not lost their significance.