Anchor and mooring devices for marine models. Building ship models
150. Sailing ships use anchors of the old system - Admiralty, despite the complexity of their removal.
Cleaning the deck or taking anchors to pertulins and rustications is a serious and responsible job, since the weight of the anchor is large (about 4 tons), the work is done manually, so you should especially carefully prepare for cleaning the anchor even before the actual shooting.
151. It is necessary to take into account that anchors on sailing ships are mostly selected manually at a speed of 1-1.5 meters per minute, even if there is a mechanical drive, then with it the anchor-chain is driven at a speed of 2-2.5 meters per minute , and therefore it is necessary to calculate in advance the start time of anchor sampling in order to complete this operation by the appointed time.
152. Before shooting from an anchor, as a preparatory measure, it is necessary, depending on the meteorological situation, to select an anchor chain from one and a half to two depths.
153. After the extra anchor-chain has been picked up, the topsailers, painted on the masts, are sent up at a rush to release the sails, under which they are supposed to sail depending on the weather. For example, if the wind is force 6, then, obviously, there is no need to give up bomb ramsails, boom jib and mizzen-haff-topsail.
154. Before shooting from anchor, it is necessary to measure the direction and strength of the wind, clarify the weather forecast, and check it with the actual meteorological situation.
155. Depending on the meteorological situation, the navigator must make preliminary plans in advance in terms of determining the courses and boundaries of possible tacking (if the wind is contrary), the maximum courses when going close-hauled, and other measures for the navigator’s support of sailing.
b) Shooting from anchor (Fig. 10)
156. Since a large sailing ship can weigh anchor only in open roadsteads, the anchoring maneuver will be considered in this direction. This class of vessels for shooting from anchor in a harbor or in a cramped roadstead uses a tug or, if it has a strong enough auxiliary vehicle, then it.157. When all the sails that are supposed to be carried are given up, and they remain on the mains and mainsails, it is necessary to move the yards in the required position, namely: the fore yards on the opposite tack to the one on which we plan to sail after shooting, and the main yards on that tack, on which we plan to lie after shooting from anchor. (Provision No. 1).
158. After completing the transfer of yards, the target anchor is selected to the “panner” position, and the personnel take places at their masts and prepare gear for setting the topsail sails. (Provision No. 2).
159. Upon receipt of the report from the Paner forecastle, the lower and then the upper topsails are set, the rudder is placed on board the opposite side of the desired movement after shooting. (Provision No. 3).
160. As soon as the anchor rises and then completely breaks away from the ground, the ship, under the influence of the foresails, will begin to fall back and tilt its bow to the wind; the action of the rudder at this time will help turn the ship stern to the wind. (Provision No. 4).
161. The ship falls to the wind, when lifting from the anchor, until the main sails are taken up by the wind, then the foresails are quickly thrown over the main sails and the mizzen is set. (Provisions Nos. 5 and 6).
162. After transferring the foresails to another tack and aligning them with the mainsails, as well as setting the mizzen, the ship, due to inertia, will not soon stop, but the action of the wind on the rear sails will finally force the ship to move towards the wind. At this moment, the jib and staysail are raised. At this time, work on cleaning the anchor is still ongoing. (Provision No. 6).
163. Until the anchor is raised, it is recommended to remain under low sail, and only after a report from the forecastle about the completion of removing the anchor, all sails are set. This measure provides for the elimination of the threat of death to people working overboard with the anchor, and damage to the ship’s hull from being struck by the anchor’s claw during an excessively large wave while underway. However, if there is a need to quickly move away from the previous anchorage, then you can immediately set the necessary sails, and, having moved to clear water, reducing the sails (if necessary), finish removing the anchor. In this case, the anchor is chosen not exactly under the hawse, but with the expectation that it goes a little into the hawse and does not hit the side.
Puc.No. 10 Shooting from anchor.
164. The scheme for adding sails when shooting from anchor provides for the following sequence:
First, the lower and then the upper topsails of all masts are installed;
If the wind is weak, then lower topsails are installed;
The moment when the foresails have been moved to the required tack and the ship has begun to move, being brought to the wind, then the jibs and fore-steppe staysail are installed;
After securing the anchor, lower sails, upper topsails and other sails are set according to the wind force.
165. At the time of weighing anchor and leaving the roadstead, all personnel assigned to the masts, after setting the sails, must be on the braces, sheets and tacks at all times to ensure maneuvering of the sails.
The emergency release is given after the ship reaches free water and there is no longer a need to quickly transfer the yards at the same time on all masts.
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On all combat ships, including battleships of the Russian Navy, from the very beginning of the 18th century, it was mandatory to have four large main main anchors, one spare in the hold, and up to 8 (for the largest 120-gun ships of the 1st rank) small auxiliary ones anchors - ropes, cats. Main anchors varied somewhat in size and weight, were stored in pairs on the foremast channels and were called, depending on their location, plekht (the largest), toy, daglyx and bays. The spare anchor was called a mooring.
In Russia, in the first few years of the century, Dutch anchors with rounded horns were used, and from the beginning of the 1710s, especially on large battleships, straight-horned anchors of the English type began to be used.
Since the 17th century, the mass of the largest anchor has been determined according to a formula originally developed by English shipbuilders, and then quickly adopted in the fleets of all major European maritime powers. 1/2(L+B)xB=M, where L is the length of the vessel in feet, B is its width, also in feet, and M is the weight of the anchor in pounds. The mass of other main anchors was slightly less than that of the braid and amounted to 0.9 -0.95 of it. Based on the mass obtained during the calculation, all dimensions of the anchor were also determined using special formulas - first of all, the length of the spindle and horns.
Anchors were used not only to hold the ship in place, but also to maneuver the ship in difficult water areas. To do this, one or two main or small auxiliary anchors were transported on boats in the required direction, after which the large anchors were “released” (lowered to the ground), small ones were often fixed in some other way “according to the situation” (they could get caught on coastal stones, or even behind the trees) and the crew, sometimes up to 120 people, working on the spiers, pulled the ship in the required direction.
To prevent the loss of an anchor lying at the bottom when the rope breaks, each anchor was equipped with a float - a buoy attached to it with a cable, by which the anchor could be pulled out of the ground, raised to the surface of the water and hooked onto a cut-beam.
The system for lifting the anchor from the bottom was called cabalyaring. A group of sailors rotated the capstan, which set in motion a long loop of cable with a series of rope ties - skerrys. Several people tied the rope rising out of the water to the cable, and others, when it approached the box, gave away the skerry and put the rope in the box. 
Having lifted the anchor from the bottom with the help of a capstan, it was pulled out of the water by the hook by the eye with the cut-beam hoists, then with the hoists pulled to the butt of the foremare, it was wound onto the channel and lashed with cables to special fastenings.
The ship model is equipped with four large main anchors. Small anchors are not shown on the model.
Model dimensions - 58 * 25 * 53 cm. Scale 1:125.
The model comes with a color A4 booklet with all the information.
about the ship and the model posted on the website,
as well as a set of drawings used in the construction of the model:
Until the 19th century on warships, the anchor rope (hemp) was selected using a capstan, two drums of which were located on the first and second decks. This was the only mechanism for moving and lifting heavy weights. Merchant ships were equipped with somewhat smaller spiers, which served mainly for ropes when mooring. The anchor rope was selected using a windlass - a long horizontal drum, which was rotated using knockouts inserted into the stilettos. On small ships, the drum was fastened in two massive bushings built into the bulwark, and on large ships, in two large wooden windlass bits attached with brackets to the deck.
Anchor chains appeared in the first decade of the 19th century. On the large ships of the East India Company they had buttresses, and with the creation of American clippers they began to be used everywhere.
While anchored, the tension of the anchor chain was perceived by the windlass drum. The drum was prevented from spinning in the opposite direction by the clamps - the locking pins that acted on the gears; the clips covered the windlass spindle. The number of fells sometimes reached three and they were located one above the other. Thus, the windlass could only rotate in one direction, i.e., select the anchor chain. The required length of the anchor chain was calculated in advance, and then the anchor chain was taken out of the chain box. The end of the anchor chain was wrapped twice around the drum and went further to the fairlead, where it was riveted to the anchor bracket. The anchor chain of the required length was passed through the drum and laid in large loops on the deck. When the anchor was released, it went down and dragged the chain along with it until the entire length was etched out. The swords on the drum were made with slack to avoid a sharp blow. If the chain needed to be etched further, then the swords on the drum were loosened using rope hooks. Additional hooks were attached to the windlass bit and grabbed the chain with two of their teeth to reduce its tension when anchoring.
Iron velps were attached to the wooden drum of the windlass, which were replaceable and could have different configurations. They were intended to protect the wooden drum from abrasion and catching the chain. Sometimes, when removing the last meters of the chain, sheaves of sparks fell from the drum. It was necessary to ensure that the swords lay flat on the drum without overlap - otherwise the chain could jam and lead to rupture. To prevent this from happening, knockouts were inserted into the holes of the velps, which separated the swords of the chain.
Between 1830 and 1840 Many different ship mechanical devices were created. In 1832, the old method of rotating the windlass using hammers was improved due to the widespread use of anchor chains. The improvement consisted in the fact that the windlass was driven into rotation by a rocker arm, which raised and lowered the rods, which in turn raised and lowered the clips that clasped the windlass spindle. The firing of the clips - the pawls - acted on the gear wheels, which rotated along with the drum. Such windlasses were used on large ships until 1850, and some until our century. There were other similar designs. So, in one of them the windlass was rotated not by a rocker arm, but by levers that resembled embossings. They did not need to be removed from the studs each time. By installing a low beater with a transverse rocker approximately at the level of the forecastle deck, they eased the efforts of the sailors turning the windlass. From the rocker above the deck, a long iron shaft was placed in supports, on which there were three additional sets of knockouts. This made it possible to increase the number of sailors working with the windlass.
Around the same time, anchor chain stoppers appeared, replacing the hooks that held the anchor chain. Such a stopper was a massive iron shoe with a groove in the middle and was installed on the deck in the hawse hole. The chain was passed through a groove and could be stopped by a thick rod, which was inserted into the chain link and a hole in the shoe.
a - hand windlass with handspring: 1 - drum; 2, 20 - traction wheels; 3, 14 - wooden windlass frames; 4, 12 - central windlass bits; 5 - rocker bearing; 6 - option for placing the bearing on the bow side; 7 - 1 or 2 locking pins; 8, 22 - sliders for single-thread grip of the traction wheel; 9 - iron spindle; 10 - iron velps; 11 - lever rod; 13 - octagonal wooden stock; 15 - plan view of the gun; 16 - removable handguns; 17 - copper fittings; 18 - wooden or iron bookcase; 19 - side frames; 21 - fell or dog; 23 - iron rims; 24 - six iron velps; 25 - iron or wooden turrets;
b - patented windlass: 1 - drive bollards; 2, 9 - patterned oak pillows; 3 - bevel gear; 4 - rotation of the spire counterclockwise; 5 - rotation of the spire clockwise; 6 - locking pin; 7 - chain going to the roller on the deck; 8 - the stand has fallen; 10 - tank deck; 11 - Turkatka; 12 - asterisk; 13 - side frames.
A new windlass design was developed by John Avery in 1855. Famous industrialists Harfield and Emerson Walker began making them in the 1858 - 1860s. It was already a spire with bevel gears, in which the wooden drum was replaced by massive iron turrets. The pulleys of the turrets had sockets (stars) for the anchor chain. One of the first such spiers is shown in the figure; Subsequently, its design was significantly improved - friction brake drums were added, and in some cases a drive from a steam engine powered by an auxiliary steam boiler. But this happened after the heyday of the English tea clippers. American clipper ships had windlass with a wooden drum until they were finally replaced by capstans. On ships equipped with wooden windlasses, the anchor chain ran along the deck approximately to the bow deckhouse, and then descended through the deck fairlead into a chain box located in the hold. Where the chain passed, the deck plating was reinforced or covered with additional flooring. This was sometimes practiced on ships with a metal capstan, but since the chain passed through the capstan drum only once, it was passed over an iron deck roller located immediately behind the capstan. More often, the deck fairlead was located directly under the drum, and the anchor chain descended from it directly into the chain box.
On iron and composite clippers, for the first time, waterproof bulkheads began to be installed in the bow and stern, and the bow - the ram - was one of the walls of the chain box. On ships with very sharp bows, they tried to carry the chain box as far aft as possible.
The general arrangement of the forecastle deck largely depended on the placement of the anchor device, and the length of the windlass drums depended on the distance between the fairleads, which was determined by the sharpness of the bow contours of the vessel. Drawings of the construction of ships of that time can sometimes be misleading, since changes were often made during the work process, which are not always reflected in the documentation. Reproduction of drawings using blueprinting appeared only in the last quarter of the 19th century.
Before this, drawings were made on paper and copies were made manually on tracing paper. Only large naval shipyards could afford this. At the shipyard where my father worked and which in the 1890s. built steel four-masted sailboats and small steamships, there was only one person who performed the functions of a designer, calculation and draftsman (by the way, he was Swiss by nationality, and acquired these skills by inheritance from his father). He made a sketch of the general layout, and the foremen and foremen, using their experience and initiative, built the ship and, naturally, the final solutions often differed from those in the sketch. In the larger shipyards that built ocean-going steamships, the number of draftsmen was, of course, larger, and yet it is possible to find drawings that do not exactly match photographs of the ships, even when taking into account later changes made to the design.
It should be noted that the general arrangement of the forecastle deck had to satisfy the condition of ease of maintenance of the capstan and windlass. Therefore, the anchor deck sometimes had a bizarre shape. For example, on a clipper ship, it ended in a semicircular protrusion; the capstan was located on the forecastle deck and the windlass on the upper deck. On other ships it was the other way around: the concave end of the forecastle deck made it possible to place both a capstan and a windlass on it.
On some ships, small anchor decks rose only about a meter above the top deck and were essentially platforms. Since there was little space left under them, the windlass drum was placed either near the end of the anchor deck or next to it, so that the three windlass bits also served as its supports. The drawings show the most common types of general forecastle deck arrangement for tea clippers. On ships equipped with a spire, the forecastle deck rose above the top deck (at least human height) and storage rooms and sometimes living quarters were located under it. If the ship used a capstan with two rows of capstans and a flat drome, a mechanical windlass was placed one tier below. The capstan, intended only for lashing, was smaller and had a high, rounded dromhead with a single row of capstans.
a - large iron or composite: 1 - option with a low bulwark; 2 - wood or iron with a wooden covering; 3 - handrails with removable sections; 4 - the foresail stay is carried under the bowsprit;
b - with a low anchor deck: 1 - chain deck fairlead; 2, 3 - bale strips; 4, 6 - nedgeds; 5 - copper-clad mooring bale; 7 - eye for the forestay on the inside of the nedges; 8 - latrine on each side.
On small forecastle decks, railings and even ladders, as a rule, were not installed, although there were exceptions when such a deck was fenced with handrails with wooden posts. On ships with a high forecastle deck, ladders were installed, and the deck was also fenced with rails with metal or chain handrails. The guard posts were removable at the point where the anchor was lifted onto the deck.
The bulwark gunwale on ships with a small forecastle deck reached the bow and formed its waterway. The transverse part of the waterway protruded slightly above the lining of the forecastle deck (about 2 cm). This was done so that water could flow into small lead scuppers located at each side, since sailing ships tried to take advantage of every opportunity to collect rainwater into fresh water tanks. Thick wooden frames were bolted across the deck to a massive beam located underneath it, called a saportus. If the deck was wide enough, the jib-backstays were attached to the frames through deadeyes or forestay blocks with turnbuckles. If the forecastle deck was narrow, then for greater spacing of the jib-backstays, metal rods (backstay-jibs) were installed at the ends of the crawls, and the jib-backstays were passed through the cleats at their ends and attached to the hull behind the cradle. This design was especially often used in the presence of a flying jib. The backstay jib could be folded up so as not to interfere with entering the dock.
a - with a short anchor deck (usually a wooden or composite vessel): 1 - cast bale strip; 2 - option with a raised gunwale; 3 - bale bar with roller;
b - iron;
in - American;
g - with horizontal strips for jib sheets.
As can be seen from the figure, two main types of anchors were used on tea clippers: with wooden and iron rods. The first of them, known for a long time, with more curved legs, was very popular in America, and could be found back in the 1890s. Studying old photographs, you can see that both English and American clippers sometimes had one anchor of each of these types on different sides. The rods of American anchors, as a rule, had a cone-shaped or octagonal cross-section, except for the middle part, which had a square cross-section. The rods of English anchors had a rectangular cross-section, and the lower edge was beveled. The wooden rod consisted of two halves, which were removed and put away after going to sea. Anchors with a wooden rod curved upward can sometimes be found in the gardens of maritime museums; Such anchors were common on the European continent, but sometimes found their way onto English ships, apparently as replacements for lost ones. The relationship between the sizes of the anchor parts could be different, since the main characteristic of the anchor was its mass, but the anchor elements were always trying to be made shorter and thicker. The most common was a regular (Admiralty) anchor with a removable iron rod. At first, the rod had a rectangular shape and was removable. Later, one end of the rod was made bent, and the rod could be moved and laid along the spindle. The anchor was kept on the deck, leaning its rod against the side (if the rod was not removable). Third, the main anchor was stored in any convenient place, sometimes vertically in the cutout of the forecastle deck. For cleaning and setting the anchor, the ship had fish hoists, which were attached to a dryrope mounted on the spreader of the foremast. When the ship was in coastal waters, the ponter hook was pulled to the foresail, and it was removed during the voyage. The old method of releasing an anchor was that the anchor was suspended under the cradle on a chain (rustov), which had a detachable link at one end that could be disconnected by knocking out the pin with a hammer. This was dangerous because the chain could be thrown back, and a safer device was later developed that was controlled by a long lever. True, in any case, before releasing the anchor, the sailor had to climb overboard to remove the penter hook installed on the anchor spindle or on its yoke. Therefore, over time, this operation was eliminated - the anchor began to be suspended horizontally on pertulin and rustov. Several types of anchor machine were invented, the most typical of which is shown in the figure. When the anchor was released using these machines, both chains - the pertulin and the rustov - were thrown forward and down, which was much safer. To hoist the anchor on board, the sailor always had to climb overboard to lay the ponter hook. The operation was dangerous and was carried out by the most experienced sailors. It was abandoned only with the invention of rodless anchors, which could be left in the fairlead. This happened when clipper ships were no longer being built. It should be noted that rodless anchors were not used on the last large sailing ships, although they were common on contemporary ships.
a - Admiralty: 1 - horn; 2 - paw; 3 - spindle; 4 - iron rod; 5 - tides for a wooden rod; 6 - wedge 7 - English type wooden rod; 8 - octagonal section; 9 - rods consisting of two parts; 10 - American type wooden rod; 11 - round section; 12 - final version of the iron rod (1860); 13 - ball;
c - Trotman;
d - recoil by the anchor machine of the anchor attached to the rod and foot: 1 - rustic; 2 - trigger device; 3 - pertulin;
d - anchor lifting: 1 - fish hoist; 2 - two-pulley or three-pulley fish block; 3 - cat-lover; 4 - cut block;
e - recoil of the anchor from the cat-beam: 1 - pertulin; 2 - trigger device; 3 - a bolt that is wrapped in a crimp; 4 - chain going to the fairlead.
It would seem, what can you tell about the anchor? The simplest design at first glance. But he plays a huge role in the life of the ship. The main task of the anchor is to reliably tie the ship to the ground, no matter where it is: in the open sea or off the coast. A motor boat or a yacht, a cruise liner or a multi-ton tanker - safe movement across the sea for any vessel depends on the reliability of the anchors.
Anchor structures have evolved over hundreds of years. Reliability, ease of use, weight - each parameter was tested in practice by the sea itself, counting nautical miles. Most anchors have common names: Admiralty, ice, plow, cats. But there are anchors named after their creators. Among the inventors of reliable designs are the following names: Hall and Matrosov, Danforth, Bruce, Byers, Boldt.
“The chains of anchors ring in the port...”, or the ship’s role of the anchor
The anchor must provide safe anchorage for boats or yachts in the roadstead and on the open sea. In addition, the anchor plays a huge role in solving other problems:
- Limits the mobility of the vessel during mooring to another vessel or berth in adverse weather conditions, strong currents, and loading operations.
- Allows you to make a safe turn in a confined space (for example, in a narrow harbor).
- Can quickly extinguish inertia and stop the ship when a collision threatens.
- Helps to refloat the ship by the crew.
Parts of the anchor structure (chains, fairleads) are sometimes used for towing.
Situations when an anchor is used can be divided into two groups.
The first group is for emergency use: in situations where the anchor must hold the ship at maximum wind strength and sea waves.
The second group is for everyday use: for short stops in good weather
Anchor structure
The bow of the ship is the place where the anchor device is located. An additional anchor structure is installed at the stern of large-capacity vessels, icebreakers and tugs. This design includes a chain or rope itself, a chain box, a device with which anchor chains are attached to the ship’s hull, a hawse, a stopper, as well as a capstan and windlass, with the help of which the anchor is released and raised.
And what does the anchor itself consist of, in the steel claws of which is the safety of the ship, crew and passengers on board?
An anchor is a special structure (welded, cast or forged) that sinks to the bottom and holds the ship with the help of a rope. It consists of several elements:
A spindle (longitudinal rod) with an anchor bracket in the upper part - with the help of this bracket the anchor is attached to the chain;
Feet and horns, which are attached to the spindle either fixedly or on a hinge.
For anchors with a rod, a transverse rod is installed in the upper part of the spindle, which enhances the holding force.
Anchor structures: purpose, type
According to their purpose, ship anchors are:
- Auxiliary: anchors, ropes, docks, crampons, ice. The role of auxiliary anchors is to help the anchors in certain situations: when boarding and disembarking passengers, loading and unloading, to refloat a vessel, to hold the vessel at the edge of the ice field.
- Deadlifts: on each ship there should be 3 of them (2 in the hawse, 1 on the deck).
Based on the method of soil collection, they are divided into two groups.
One group includes anchors that pick up soil (that is, bury themselves in it) with one paw. First of all, this includes the Admiralty anchor.
Another group includes anchors that pick up soil with two legs: Hall, Byers, Boldt, Gruzon-Heyn, Matrosov anchors.
Dead anchors must meet the following criteria:
- strength;
- quick return;
- good soil sampling;
- easy separation from the ground when lifting;
- convenient fastening in the “stowed” position.
One of the most important criteria is a large holding force, that is, the maximum force, measured in kilograms, under the influence of which the anchor will not come out of the ground and will be able to keep the ship “tied.”
Anchor - "admiral"
The Admiralty anchor can rightfully be considered a veteran among ship anchors. This is perhaps the only representative of structures with a stem. Despite the fact that it has been replaced by more modern and reliable models, it still fulfills its role as a ship in the fleet. This is due to the versatility of the design.
The structure of the Admiralty anchor, proven over centuries, is laconic: the fixed legs and horns are cast or forged together with the spindle and form a single whole with it, without additional mechanical elements. The rod is wooden or metal. Its task is to help quickly remove soil and correctly orient the anchor clinging to the bottom.
The design itself folds compactly: the rod is laid along the spindle, and in modern models the legs can also be folded. This simplifies the storage and transportation of the anchor during a sea voyage.
The advantages also include a large holding force (its coefficient is 10-12), which is higher than that of many “brothers” with the same weight.
“Admiral” is able to cope with any soil: it is not afraid of large stones, among which its “colleagues” often get stuck, or the insidious pliability of silt, or the thickness of underwater algae.
The disadvantages of the naval old-timer include bulkiness and bulkiness, labor-intensive handling - this leads to the fact that it is troublesome to attach it to the stowed position and cannot be quickly returned. The anchor is forged from iron with strict requirements for the quality of the material and workmanship - this leads to its high cost.
The rod often fails: the iron one bends, and the wooden one is damaged by mollusks; it is fragile and short-lived.
When immersed in the ground, one paw sticks out, posing a threat to ships in shallow water, and the anchor chain can get caught on the horn protruding above the ground and get tangled.
In 1988, the Englishman Hall patented an anchor named after him. This anchor is also considered a naval veteran, only rodless. The design consists of a spindle and two legs, cast together with the box.
The paws in this design are unusual: they have a flat shape, swing and can rotate on an axis.
The box and paws are weighted with tides with thickenings in the form of blades. Their task is to turn their paws, forcing them to go into the ground to a depth that can be 4 times the length of the paws themselves. This is especially important if the soil is weak and you need to go deep to reach a solid base.
The undeniable advantages of the Hall anchor are considered to be a fairly large holding force, fast recoil (it can be released on the go, and this method of recoil even helps to deepen the paws as much as possible) and convenient cleaning into the hawse.
In shallow water, it is not dangerous for other vessels, since the paws lie flat on the ground, and the anchor chain or rope cannot become entangled around the paws.
The disadvantages of the design include the unreliability of anchor fastening on soil of heterogeneous composition when a torque occurs or while parking in an open roadstead when the wind direction changes or there is a strong current, when the anchor begins to creep jerkily. In this case, with a strong jerk, the anchor jumps out of the ground, and then deepens again thanks to the shovels, which manage to raise the mound from the ground. This is due to too much distance between the paws. In addition, the hinge box may jam when sand or small pebbles are collected in it.
When pulled into the hawse while retracting the anchor, the paws cannot always independently take the required position due to the not very good location of the center of gravity.
This anchor is one of the most modern designs with increased holding force. Created by the Soviet engineer I.R. Matrosov in 1946, it absorbed the advantages and eliminated the disadvantages inherent in the paws of two types of anchors: with fixed paws (such as the Admiralty one) and with rotary ones (Hall anchor).
The design of the anchor is as follows: spindle, legs, side rods, anchor bracket.
In Matrosov’s system, the wide rotary paws are almost very close to the spindle and are so close to each other that when digging into the ground they begin to work like one big paw. The area of each of them is larger than in other anchor structures. Together with the paws, a rod with side bosses is cast. The rod is shifted upward relative to the spindle rotation axis. Its task is to protect the anchor from capsizing and increase the holding force by sinking into the ground along with the paws.
The advantages of the design are stability when dragged along the ground, high holding force even on soft sandy and silty soils and in stones, relatively low weight and ease of retraction into the fairlead during harvesting. When the vessel turns 360 0, it stays confidently.
The design also has its drawbacks. On dense soil at the initial stage of deepening, the anchor is unstable. If the paws are turned out of the ground, they do not re-enter the ground, and the anchor continues to crawl. The space between the legs of the spindle is so narrow that it is often clogged with soil - this does not give the legs the opportunity to deviate freely.
Production
The Matrosov anchor is available in two versions:
- welded (welded paw)
- cast full-weight (cast paw)
The technical standard for Matrosov's anchor is GOST 8497-78. It is used for anchors that are used on surface vessels, ships and inland watercraft.
Technical characteristics and parameters are determined by mass (weight of the anchor)
Welded anchor
Matrosov's welded anchor is made weighing from 5 to 35 kg from stainless steel or from steel with an anodized coating or paint coating.
Anchors coated with paint require additional care (removal of rust and painting), since the paint is quickly peeled off by soil. The anodic coating is more resistant, but is also subject to physical impact upon contact with the ground. The most resistant of welded structures are anchors welded from stainless steel.
Cast anchor
Cast Matrosov anchors are made weighing from 25 to 1500 kg.
They are usually cast from cast iron and coated with anode coating or paint.
The cast Matrosov anchor in its experimental version was successfully tested on sea fishing vessels under operating conditions. Its advantages over the Hall anchor turned out to be indisputable.
Which one is better?
Given the wide variety of ship anchors, it is impossible to definitively answer the question of which design is better.
However, numerous tests to determine the magnitude of the holding force on various types of soil have shown that the Matrosov anchor is 4 times greater than the Admiralty and Hall anchors with equal mass.
The anchor is effective for use on inland navigation vessels, river vessels, boats and yachts. On ships it is practiced to use it as an auxiliary one.
§ 24. Making anchors for ship models
Before you start making an anchor for the model, you need to determine its dimensions according to the previously given proportions.
Rice. 47. Left side anchor (daglix), held at the side by a pertuline and
rustic (XIX century):
1 - crumble; 2 - pertulin; 3 - rustov; 4 - biteng for pertulin; 5 - biteng for rus-tov; 6 - simple anchor machine
Rice. 48. Anchor of the starboard side (toi), held by the Rustovs (XIX century):
1 - rustic; 2 - anchor stands; 3 - double anchor machine
The anchor can be made from sheet brass with a thickness equal to the thickness of the spindle and horns of the anchor. First, it is better to draw the anchor on thick cardboard and cut it out with scissors, and then transfer its outline to brass. The anchor, along with the spindle and horns, is cut out with a jigsaw, and then they begin processing with various files and needle files. The anchor spindle can be quadrangular (with beveled corners) or round, and in both cases slightly tapering upward. The spindle and arms of the anchor are sometimes cut out separately, and then, after making the appropriate cuts with a jigsaw, they are joined by soldering. The arms of the anchor are cut separately from thinner sheet brass and soldered to the horns. After this, the anchor is sanded with fine-grained sandpaper and polished with a paste for steel or gold. The anchor ring (eye) is made from round brass wire, and anchor chains for models are also made (using a template). Brass wire, preferably annealed, must be pulled out before winding onto the template by holding one end in a vice. After this it becomes smooth and elastic.
The finished anchor and chains are painted with black nitro varnish or liquid nitro paint, adding a little aluminum powder, which makes the paint more like metal. But the anchors and chains look better and more natural after blackening. Some mordants for blackening brass parts and the blackening process were described above.
The last thing to strengthen on the anchor is the rod. It can be made from two beech halves and coated with light varnish. Yokes can be soldered from strips of thin tin or brass and painted black.
§ 25. Spiers and windlasses
The capstan in a sailing fleet is one of the most important mechanisms. It served to lift not only the anchor (in this case it was called the anchor capstan), but also yards, boats, refloating the ship, etc.
On sailing ships, two wooden hand capstans were usually used: large and small (Fig. 49). The spire consisted of a spire column, the upper part of which had an octagonal cross-section and was called a spindle or spindle. There were eight welps ribs on the side faces of the spindle. Above the velps there was the head of a spire - a drogmed, along the circumference of which there were square holes - stilettos, into which levers were inserted. Using punches, the spire was rotated manually. To prevent the spire from rotating in the opposite direction, square holes were made at the base of the drum into which pins - wooden or metal pins - entered.
Large spiers (see Fig. 49) had two drums located on different decks (accordingly, people worked on two decks). These spiers were used mainly for lifting anchors. The manufacture of the spire is shown in Fig. 50.
Rice. 49. Wooden spiers:
A- small spire; b - large spire; 1 - spire column (pillar); 2 - spindle (spindle); 3 - welps; 4 - dogmed; 5 - studs; 6 - embossing; 7 - gear; 8 - fires
Rice. 50. Making a spire: 1 - velps; 2 - dogmed; 3 - stilettos; 4 - spindle (spindle)
§ 26. Boat devices of sailing ships
Rice. 51. Windlass of the 18th century: 1 - bits; 2 - drum; 3 - stilettos; 4 - beam; 5 - fires; 6 - gears
Modern small oared ship craft were described in some detail in the first part of the “Ship Modeler's Handbook” (M., DOSAAF, 1978). Here we will focus only on some of the floating vessels of the Russian sailing fleet of the 18th century. and the first half of the 19th century.
Small ship-based floating craft began to develop simultaneously with the development of shipbuilding, as an urgent need for them immediately arose. It has always been very difficult to enter the harbor on a sailing ship. For various communications with the shore, to replenish the ship with drinking water and food, especially off unfamiliar shores, the captains sent small floating craft to the shore - various boats and boats.
Large and strong rowing and sailing boats with a carrying capacity of 3 to 7 tons were called barkasses. They were used to transport anchors (verps), they were used to make inventories of coastlines, islands, measure the depths of coastal reservoirs and many other operations. All bays, islands, bays and river mouths of the Far East were described on such boats.
In Peter's times, barges were still small, by the end of the 18th century. they reached 18 oars, and in the 19th century. they were already 22 oars. By this time, they began to be divided, however, conditionally, into barges and semi-barges. The barkasses included 16 - 22 oar boats, and the semi-barkazes included 8 - 14 oar boats (small barkasses).
In addition to barges, in Peter’s times they also used six-oared boats, which later became known as six-oared yawls. In size they were smaller than semi-barcases. These boats (yawls) have survived to this day almost unchanged and are used for communication between ships, between ships and the shore, for sporting purposes, etc.
On sailing ships, especially on merchant ships, windlasses were also used - horizontal spiers (Fig. 51). The windlasses consisted of two drums, the axis of which - the spindle - was supported by two side beaters. The spindle came out through the beaters, and the drum had a number of square holes - pins, for installing embossings (levers) in them. In the middle of the windlass there was a column on which there were pins that slid along the gear wheels of the drum and prevented the drum from returning in the opposite direction.
Rice. 52. Types of boats:
A- 18-oar barge; b - 6-oar gig; c - oarlocks; 1 - ordinary rowlock; 2 - semi-porticos; 3 - kochets; 4 - skarma
All longboats, semi-longboats and yawls had almost the same type, quite full, hull contours and transom stern. The only difference between barkasses and yawls was that the ratio of length and width for barkasses was 3.6 - 3.7, and for yawls - 3.3.
In the first half of the 19th century. new high-speed four- and six-oared gig boats appeared on sailing ships. They were narrow and long (length to width ratio up to 6 or more). They were usually installed (suspended) on the davits of the stern deck. In Fig. 52 shows some types of boats, their hull lines and oarlocks.
Longboats and semi-longboats on ships were placed between the fore and main masts on the waist, and they were raised and lowered using special water hoists attached to these masts. Small boats (yawls) were raised and lowered using simple davits, and most often they were suspended on davits installed along the sides at the stern.
It is necessary to say a few words about rowlocks - devices for holding oars at the gunwale during rowing. Modern naval boats, from tugs to barges and rowing boats, are equipped with rowlocks forged from steel in the form of a pin with a fork (see Fig. 52). On boats, these oarlocks are inserted into a socket on the gunwale, and their lower part is inserted into the oarlock steps.
On barges, boats and yawls, instead of rowlocks, semicircular cutouts, semi-porticos, bound in brass, were made in the upper planking board located above the gunwale. In Peter's times, rowlocks on boats were replaced by either two oak pins - kochet, or one, called skarma or shkarma (see Fig. 52). Kochet (two pins) were also made at the beginning of the 19th century. on military gig boats.
§ 27. Making mock-ups of boats
When there are many boats on a model, usually two of them are made open (with cans, fish), and the rest are made from a whole block of wood, simulating a boat under a cover.
The wooden blank hull for a boat is processed in the same way as for the hull of a ship model. On one side of a block of wood of a certain size, the contour of the boat deck is outlined according to a pre-made template. Then, using a knife and files, remove the excess wood.
When making a large-scale model of a boat, frame templates are used, cut out according to the theoretical drawing of the boat (see Fig. 52).
The keel of the boat is made when the hull is already ready. A longitudinal slot is cut into the bottom, into which a keel made of thin plywood or celluloid is glued. The boat model is carefully sanded, primed, puttied and painted. A cover made of fabric looks rough, so it is imitated with thread and painted in a color different from the color of the boat (Fig. 53).
Open boats, sometimes with all the detail (for large scale models), are made in a variety of ways. When gluing a body from papier-mâché or gauze in several layers (Fig. 54), it is necessary to apply a separating layer (for example, paraffin) to the body of the blank so that the fabric or other material does not stick to the blank.
Rice. 53. Boat model cover, imitated with threads
Rice. 54. Making a fabric boat model:
1 - blank; 2 - pasting the blank; 3 - trimming excess material; 4 - removing the blank; 5 to 6- final processing
Rice. 55. Extruding models of boats from plexiglass (celluloid) g: A- punch; 6 - matrix
Rice. 56. Oars for various boats:
A- roller; b - swing; V- release hook
The best way to make open boats up to 80 cm long is to extrude them from plexiglass (0.5 - 0.6 mm thick) or celluloid. To do this, you need the simplest stamping device - a punch and a matrix (Fig. 55). The punch (model of the hull of a boat or boat) is made of hard wood and glued to a wooden block of several larger sizes than the model of the boat. The height of the model should be 1 - 2 mm higher than the side of the model of the boat being manufactured. After stamping the boat, excess material is cut off.
The matrix is a piece of plywood slightly thicker than the height of the punch with a hole cut in it, which is larger than the punch by the thickness of the stamped material. To stamp the boat hull, a plate of plexiglass, held with tweezers, is heated until softened over an electric hotplate, quickly transferred to the matrix and squeezed out using a punch. Excess material from the stamped boat is removed using an emery wheel and needle files. Having painted the inside of the boat, all the necessary parts are glued in - cans, fish, etc.
When stamping lifeboat models, the celluloid is heated in hot water rather than over a hotplate to prevent it from catching fire. Models of boat hulls are stamped without a keel. The keel, made from a strip of celluloid, is glued on later.
To attach the boat to the boat hoists, chain lifts are made in the bow and stern of the boat. On small-scale models they are depicted schematically in the form of wire ends.
Cans for rowers are additionally secured to the sides with metal brackets. On sea yawls and barges, roller oars are used (Fig. 56), and on gigs, rollerless (swing) oars are used. On each bank, one rower rows with one swing oar. When mooring and unloading boats, release hooks are used.
The boat's supplies include (Fig. 57): a small Admiralty type anchor with a metal rod, called a "drek", with a resin cable - drektov; anchors - oak barrels with copper hoops used for storing drinking water; fenders - canvas bags with rope braid, stuffed with cork, used to soften the impacts of the sides of the boat when mooring (they can be knitted from thick thread with a crochet hook or sewn from a piece of ready-made knitted material), gangway - a board with slats (steps) stuffed onto it.
The manufacture of lattice hatches and painters is shown in Fig. 58.
Rice. 57. Boat supplies:
A - anchor (drek); b - anchor; V- fender; G- gangplank
Rice. 58. Making a lattice hatch (A) and painter (b)
§ 28. Steering devices of sailing ships
To ensure turning ability, as well as maintaining a given straight direction, a rudder is installed on each vessel.
On sailing ships of the 18th century. and the first half of the 19th century. the steering wheel was wooden. It consisted of a stock and a flat surface - the rudder blade. When hung on the sternpost, the rudder pins mounted on its shackles (ribs) entered the sternpost loops (Fig. 59). The upper end of the rudder stock passed into the vessel through a hole in the stern (helmport). The baller (square in cross-section) had a quadrangular hole at the end for installing a long tiller into it, which went under the beams of the second deck and was supported at the end by a semicircular wooden sector mounted on the beams. The end of the tiller ended in a curved iron cage that slid along the sector (see Fig. 59). The tiller was connected by a system of steering ropes and guide blocks to the steering wheel drum, which had spurs around the circumference of the handle. On a large ship there could be two steering wheels (Fig. 60).
Rice. 59. Rudder of a sailing ship and its parts:
1 - ore erpis; 2 - rudder blade; 3 - baller; 4 - square hole for tiller; 5 - steering loops; 6 - horizontal ribs with pins; 7 - tiller; 8 - eyelets for weeds; 9 - sector
Rice. 61. Making a steering wheel
Rice. 60. Steering gear of an ancient ship:
1 - steering wheel; 2 - drum; 3 - shturtros; 4 - vertical racks
Sturt wires could be made of durable plant rope or chain wires.
The helm was located on the ship's quarterdeck in front of the mizzenmast. On small vessels - longboats and yawls - the steering wheel is controlled directly using the tiller.
From the steering device described above, the ship modeler will only have to make a rudder with a stock and a steering gear with a steering wheel and cables going under the deck.
The most difficult thing is making the steering wheel. It is easier to make it prefabricated from individual parts (Fig. 61). To do this, the inner race of the steering wheel with holes for the spokes (or drum) and the spokes of the steering wheel along with the handles are machined separately from hard wood or celluloid. On the knitting needles below the handles, tetrahedrons are filed using a file. Separately, cut out two halves of the steering wheel with recesses for the tetrahedron spokes of the steering wheel. Then assemble the entire steering wheel and glue it with liquid glue using a small brush.
§ 29. Some useful things on a sailing ship
Useful things (in the modern sense) on sailing ships include: gangways, lanterns, bells, skylights and companion hatches, windows, portholes, etc.
On ships, ladders are called ship staircases that are used to move people from one deck to another. The ladders are divided into internal and external. Internal ladders connect the upper deck with the lower ones. On sailing ships they were made of wood and consisted of two side boards (strings) and a series of horizontal steps (Fig. 62). They were installed obliquely at an angle of 50 - 60° relative to the deck. The width of the ladders between the strings was 1.0 - 1.2 m, and the vertical distance between the steps was 0.25 - 0.3 m.
Since up to 10 or more ladders have to be installed on a model of a sea sailing vessel, it is convenient to use various devices (conductor templates) to assemble and glue them, which can be easily made in any ship model circle.
A template-conductor for assembling models of inclined and outboard ladders from plywood, veneer, plexiglass, celluloid or cardboard (Fig. 63) is made as follows. The base of the template is cut out from a board or plywood 5 - 7 mm thick, two paired slats are planed under the square, a template slat is cut out, in which slots with a depth of 60° are made at an angle of 60° to the horizontal h - = 1.5 - 2 mm at equal distances L from each other. The distance between the slots depends on the scale of the ladder. Sides are glued to the paired slats, the height of which should be equal to the vertical distance from the base to the lower edge of the slot in the template slats, and the width - 1.5 - 2 mm. The width of the template slats should be less than the length of the steps by at least twice the width of the side. The length of the paired slats should be slightly greater than the length of the base of the conductor template.
Rice. 62. Internal ship ladders: 1 - inter-deck ladders; 2 - quarterdectrap; 3 - stern deflectors
Rice. 63. Conductor template for assembling internal ladders:
1 - template base; 2 - rack template; 3 - side rails; 4 - steps; 5 - sides;
6 - ladder stand
Rice. 64. External drains:
A- outboard ladder; b- storm ladder; V- shot with a storm ladder
The manufacture of the ladder begins by cutting the side racks of the ladder (strings) and steps from the appropriate material (plywood, veneer, plexiglass, celluloid or cardboard 0.5 - 1 mm thick).
The steps are placed in the slots of the slats, and bowstrings are placed on the side of the paired slats. The ends of the steps are smeared with glue and paired slats along with bowstrings are moved close to them. After the glue has dried, the slats are moved apart and the ladder is carefully removed from the template slats. To tightly press the string to the ends of the steps, you can put rubber rings on the ends of the paired slats, since the slats are slightly longer than the base of the template. The ladder is glued together with enamel or AK-20 glue in 10 - 15 minutes.
Having two copies of templates for models in scales 1: 150 and 1: 100, you can make ladders for models in scales 1: 75 and 1: 50. To do this, the steps of the ladder must be placed into the template rail through one slot.
External ladders include the outboard ladder and storm ladders. The outboard ladder consisted of a series of steps fixed outside the side almost in the middle of the ship (Fig. 64, A). The last steps of the ladder were wider than the others, since when the nobles were ascending, sailors stood on them, holding the cables that served as handrails. The storm ladder consisted of two cables (Fig. 64, b), to which wooden baluster steps were screwed. It was mounted on the stern rails so that the crew could get into the boat or climb aboard. It was sometimes called the stern ladder. A similar storm ladder was also hung on the shot (Fig. 64, V). By the end of the first half of the 19th century. front side ladders appeared, which still exist today.
Ship bells were used to give signals during fires and in fog. The entire daily life of the ship was conducted by the sound of the bell; it served to strike bells (half-hour intervals) on a glass hourglass. A sailor on watch constantly stood near the hourglass, turning over the half-hour flask and striking the ship's bell.
Rice. 65. Ship's bells
Rice. 66. Magnetic compass with wooden binnacle:
1 - cap; 2 - balls of magnetic iron; 3 - binnacle; 4 - guy wires with screw lanyards
The ship's bell has been preserved on ships to this day; the half-hour bells are also struck by it, but, of course, not by the hourglass.
In Fig. 65 shows some examples of ship bells of sailing ships. On warships there were two bells: a large one at the quarter deck railings and a small one at the forecastle railings. The short end, tied to the tongue of a ship's bell for chiming, is called a bowline bell. Sometimes the entire ship's bell is incorrectly called a bell.
Rice. 67. Stern ship lights
To determine the direction at sea and the course of the ship on a sailing ship, they used a magnetic compass. Its action is based on the property of a magnetic needle, freely rotating on the tip of a hairpin, to constantly turn one end to the north magnetic pole. A magnetic compass consists of a pot with a card and a binnacle with a deviation device. The binnacle (Fig. 66) was a wooden quadrangular or hexagonal cabinet, in the upper part of which there was a magnetic compass. The binnacle was closed on top with a copper or brass cap, protecting the compass and the inside of the binnacle from bad weather. The binnacle was fastened to the ship's deck on both sides with guy ropes and screw lanyards, and with bolts on the bottom.
Based on their use, magnetic compasses are divided into main, travel and boat compasses. Using the main compass, directions to celestial bodies, shore and other objects are determined; using the track helmsman, he maintains the course of the ship; and using the boat compass, he corrects the course of the boat when it is towards the open sea.
The main magnetic compass on a sailing ship was installed in the center plane on the uppermost deck or in the wheelhouse, and the track compass was installed near the steering wheel, in the center plane or strictly parallel. The height of the traveling compass binnacle is about 1 m, and the main one is about 1.2 m, the dimensions in plan are 300X300 mm.
Running lights. On ancient sailing ships, the stern lights served as distinctive lights (Fig. 67). All-round lighting lanterns were usually placed at the stern of the ship. Merchant ships, as a rule, carried one or two stern lights, military ships - from three to seven. During the joint voyage of warships as part of a fleet squadron at night, stern lights were used to give various signals and commands.
By the middle of the 18th century. The decoration of ships reached its culmination and became an object of art. Stern lanterns, as well as bow figures, became the main elements in the decoration of the ship. Each lantern was illuminated by dozens of huge candles installed inside in several tiers. The stern lanterns were large - each lantern could fit several people.
In the middle of the 19th century. prototypes of modern navigation lights appear - distinctive side lights (green and red), masthead and taillights (white), which were legalized in uniform rules for preventing collisions of ships at sea at the Washington International Conference in 1889.
CHAPTER V, SPANG AND RIGGING
§ 30. Spar
The spar refers to all wooden, and on modern ships, metal parts that are used to carry sails, flags, hoist signals, etc. The spar includes: masts, topmasts, yards, gaffs, booms, bowsprits, jigs, foxtails and shots .
The mast (Fig. 68) is a vertical or slightly inclined spar tree that serves as the basis for attaching other parts of the spar (topmasts, yards) and setting the sails. The masts of large sailing ships with straight rigs reached a height of 60 m or more with a thickness of the lower part of up to 1 m. It was not possible to select a completely straight tree of this size, so the masts were made composite of several trees extending each other in height. The lower tree is called a column or simply a mast, and the extensions are called topmasts.
Depending on the size of the vessel and the type of sailing rig, the number of masts may vary. Each mast has its own name - So, on a three-masted ship, the first mast from the bow of the ship is called the foremast, the second is the mainmast, the third, the smallest, is the mizzen mast.
Topmasts get their names from the masts they belong to. So, on the foremast, the topmasts are called: fore-topmast, fore-topmast, fore-bom-topmast. On the main mast: main topmast, main top top top top, main top top top top top. The exception is the mizzen mast, the topmasts of which are named (from the deck upward): cruise-topmast, cruise-topmast, cruise-bom-toptopmast.
The boom-topmast and topmast were, as a rule, made in one piece, that is, from one piece of wood (see Fig. 68). The part of the boom topmast above the boom rigging is called a flagpole, onto which a klotik is mounted - a ball turned from wood, flattened at the top and bottom.
Rice. 68. Mast structure: 1 - lower mast (column); 2 - axle; 3 - iron yokes; 4 - chicks; 5 - longa-sa-lingi; 6 - spreaders; 7 - ezelgoft; 8 - topmast; 9 - topmast; 10 - boom topmast; 11 - flagpole; 12 - klotik; 13 - wuling; 14 - wooden yoke; 15 - scale; 16 - scale mount; 17 - wooling mating
The tallest mast has always been the mainmast. Its height for three-masted ships with straight rigging was determined by the length of the ship along the gon-deck, folded with its greatest width and divided in half. The height of the foremast and mizzen masts, together with their tops, was determined by the height of the mainmast. Thus, the length of the foremast was 8/9, and the mizzen mast was 6/7 the length of the mainmast. The length of the main topmast was equal to 3/5 of the length of the main mast. In turn, the fore topmast was 8/9, and the cruise topmast was 3D of the length of the main topmast. The length of topmasts made into one tree with boom topmasts and their flagpoles is summed from the length of the topmast equal to 7g of its topmast, boom topmast (5/7 its topmast) and a flagpole equal 5/7 of his boom topmast.
These proportions were often slightly changed at the discretion of the builder; here they are not presented in full, but with accuracy sufficient for amateur ship modellers.
As mentioned above, fore is a word added to the names of spar trees, parts of rigging and sails related to the foremast, but strengthened above the topsail platform. For example, fore-topmast, fore-top-stay, etc. Stays attached to the fore-topmast are called fore-stays; a staysail, the rail of which is attached to the fore-topmast, is called a fore-topmast-staysel, etc.
Brahm is a word added to the names of the spar, rigging or sail, indicating that they belong to the third leg from the bottom of the mast (bram-topmast). For example, a yard rising on a topmast is called a top-yard; the shrouds supporting the topmast are called topstay shrouds; the sail attached to the top-yard is the top-sail.
Bom is a word taken separately that has no independent meaning, but when added to the name of the spar, rigging and sails, it indicates that they belong to the fourth leg from the bottom of the mast (bom-topmast) or bom-jumper (the second extension of the bowsprit) . For example, a yard raised on a boom topmast is called a boom yard; the forestay supporting the boom topmast in front is called the boom stay; sail on a boom topmast - boom topsail; jib on a bom jib - bom jib.
The lower masts (columns), as well as bowsprits for strength, were made of several beams, tied together with bands - cable vulings, and in the 18th century. - cable vulings were replaced with iron hoops - yokes. They were put on the spar while hot. Until the 18th century The woolings on the masts consisted of a cable winding between two wooden yokes. Typically a wooling consisted of five or six rope hoses laid around a mast. The distance between neighboring wulings was approximately 1 m.
In the 18th century Masts on warships began to be additionally reinforced with an attachment - a scale, which was also fastened to the mast with cable vulings.
The lower end of the mast - the spur - ended with a square-section axle, which was inserted into a step - a socket located on the keelson. The upper square part of the mast is called the top. At its top there is a trunnion, also of a square (smaller) cross-section, on which an ezelgoft is put on, connecting the mast with the topmast. On both sides of the mast, in the lower part of the top, shaped pieces called chicks were attached (Fig. 69), to them were two longitudinal beams - longa-salinga, and on the longa-salinga - other transverse beams - spreaders. A top platform, often simply called a top, was laid on the spreaders and long salings, which was necessary for distributing the wall shrouds and as a place of work when setting and cleaning the sails.
Previously, on sailing ships with straight sails, the mars looked like a round basket. During the battle, there were shooters on Mars, armed with bows and later with firearms. Around the middle of the 18th century. Mars are starting to be made almost rectangular; only the bow part was rounded. The hole between the long salings and the front spreader serves to raise and lower the topmast. The shrouds of the lower mast pass through the holes between the long salings and the sides of the square opening of the mars (dog holes). The sailors climbed the masts through dog holes or along the shrouds.
Three-masted ships carried three topsails, which were named according to their belonging to one or another mast: on the foremast there was a fore-tops, on the mainmast there was a main-tops, and on the mizzen mast there was a cruis-tops. Marses have also been preserved on modern sailing ships.
Rice. 69. Mars details:
1 - lower mast (column); 2 - chicks; 3 - longa-salings; 4 - spreaders; 5 - dog holes; 6 - Mars; 7 - top of the mast; 8 - ezelgoft; 9 - topmast
Rice. 70. Connection of the topmast with the topmast:
1 - topmast; 2 - chicks; 3 - longa-salings; 4 - spreaders; 5 - topmast; V- ezelgoft; 7 - top shrouds; 8 - Schwitz-torn-sling
All topmasts were also connected to each other using salings and ezelgofts, but of smaller sizes. The saling frame consisted of two long salings and two or three spreaders.
Ezelgoft (see Fig. 69) is a wooden frame with two holes: a square one, which is put on the top of the lower mast or topmast, and a round one, into which the subsequent topmast is passed. So, the lower mast and the topmast are connected to each other using a topmast and an ezelgoft, and the topmast with a topmast, a toptopmast with a toptopmast, etc. - using a saling and an ezelgoft. The connection between the topmast and topmast is shown in Fig. 70.
Salings and ezelgofts, depending on their belonging to a particular mast, are called: for-saling, for-bram-saling, mast ezelgoft, for-sten-ezelgoft, kruys-sten-ezelgoft, bowsprit ezelgoft (connecting the bowsprit with the jib ) etc.
A bowsprit is a horizontal or slightly inclined beam
(inclined mast), protruding from the bow of a sailing ship and serving to carry straight sails - a blind and a bomb blind. Until the end of the 18th century. the bowsprit consisted of only one tree with a blind topmast (Fig. 71, a), on which straight blind and bomb-blind sails were installed on the blind yard and bomb-blin-da-yard.
From the end of the 18th century. the bowsprit is extended with the help of a jib, and then a boom jib (Fig. 71, b). The blind and bomb blind are no longer installed on it; it serves to extend the stays of the foremast and its topmasts, as well as to attach the bow triangular sails - jibs and staysails, which improved the propulsion and agility of the ship. At one time, triangular sails were combined with straight ones.
Rice. 71. Bowsprits:
A - XVIII century; b - late 18th century; V- first half of the 19th century; 1 - bowsprit; 2 - knitsa; 3 - bowsprit ezelgoft; 4 - Mars; 5 - blind topmast; 6 - blind-topmast; 7 - flagpole; S- klotik; 9 - jig; 10 - bom-fitter; 11 - ezelgoft; 12 - gaff blind; 13 - mar-tin-geek; 14 - rod guy; 15 - cable vuling
Rice. 72. Lower yard (A) and lysel alcohols (b):
1 - brace blocks; 2 - counter brace blocks; 3 - topping blocks; 4 - butts; 5 - rail for attaching the sail; 6 - props; 7 - Perth; 8 - lower yard; 9 - guards; 10 - gardel blocks; 11 - longa-salings; 12 - Mars platform; 13 - top of the mast; 14 - topmast; 15 - yoke; 16 - lysel-alcohols
The bowsprit itself was attached to the bow of the ship using a water-vuling-ga made of a strong cable, and later (19th century) and chains (Fig. 71, V). To tie the wooling, the main end of the cable was secured to the bowsprit, then the cable was passed through the hole in the bowdiged, around the bowsprit, etc. Usually 11 hoses were installed, which were tightened in the middle with transverse hoists. From the sliding of the hoses along the bowsprit, several wooden attachments were made on it - an encore.
Bowsprits with a jib and a boom jib had a vertical martin boom and horizontal blind gaffs (see Fig. 71) for spacing the standing rigging of the jib and boom jib.
