Duke of Wellington. Anecdotes from life
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Leningrad State University A.S. Pushkin
Faculty of Linguistics and Intercultural Communication
Department of Translation and Translation Studies
abstract
Admiral Nelson and the Duke of Wellington. History of great victories
St. Petersburg
INTRODUCTION
This work aims to examine the history of great victories on land and at sea by Admiral Nelson and the Duke of Wellington. Many historians and writers have always been interested in the life of these famous people. Among them, V.G. Trukhanovsky stands out. Admiral Nelson and Aldington R. Wellington. Duke ”, they describe in detail the moments of the heroes' lives, from birth to death. The main part of these books, of course, is military service. Entry into the service, the first successes, great victories forever remained in the minds of millions of people, but few people know at the cost of what efforts these victories were achieved.
The history of the life of the two military leaders is of interest to society in our time. Their military battles will forever remain one of the most exciting events in English history. And just the purpose of this work is to consider the biographies of Admiral Nelson and the Duke of Wellington. Detailed description of their lives, private, military, state, great victories in battles and battles, battle tactics that left behind many questions requiring a comprehensive analysis.
Horatio Nelson was born with poor health, but this did not prevent him from entering the naval service. He quickly climbed the career ladder, although not without the help of his uncle. Early in his career, Nelson met his love and soon got married. The first glory came to him after the battle of St. Vicente, when the future admiral, without the permission of the commander-in-chief, left the battle formation and began to act according to his own considerations. According to the law of the sea, this was punishable by death. The next victories were the battles of Aboukir and Trafalgar, which became Nelson's last victory.
Arthur Wellington quickly began his career, early received his first baptism of fire. In addition to military activities, he also led political activities. The Portuguese and Spanish companies have once again shown his high professionalism. He applied new tactics of battle, which later became widespread. The peak of his fame was the battle of Waterloo, after which he received many awards for this battle.
So what significance did these victories have for the history of England? What conclusions did Nelson and Wellington draw on the battlefield? What maneuvers and tactics did you use? These and other issues will have to be sorted out in the course of this work.
ADMIRAL NELSON. YOUTH ON DECK
September 1758 in the family of the parish priest of the town of Burnham Thorpe, forgotten by God and people, in the county of Norfolk in the far north-east of England, a boy was born, for whom fate has prepared the most incredible feats and world fame. The born boy was named Horatio, and he was the sixth child in the family. The child's father, the Rev. Edmund Nelson, served as a priest in the neighboring town of Hilborough. The Nelson family has been theological since ancient times. Three generations of men in this family have served as priests. As for the Reverend Edmund, he sincerely believed in God, loved order in everything, was distinguished by severity and prudence. Children, and the priest had eleven of them, he brought up extremely strictly. Their children were born weak and sick. Three of them died in very early childhood.
As for little Horatio, he was born so weak that his father and mother rushed to baptize him on the tenth day, in case he was destined to live short. Horatio survived, but grew up extremely frail and sickly. The rest of his health was taken away by local swamp fever.
He attended two schools: Downham Market Elementary and Paston and Norwich High School. By the time he graduated from school, Nelson had already studied Shakespeare and knew the basics of Latin, but showed no inclination for science. This meant that the path to respected professions had been barred from him. Horace also did not show zeal in studying the Law of God. Edmund Nelson did not have the means to buy his son a patent for an officer's rank, which was then very common in England. The last thing remained - the navy. However, Horatio's poor health caused understandable fears in his father. The more Moreover, on one of his visits to Burnham Thorpe, Captain Maurice Suckling promised to help arrange for the fleet of his nephews who expressed a desire for this.
It was early spring 1771, and Horatio Nelson was only a full twelve years old. Captain Rathbourne was planning to go to the West Indies, and such a voyage could be an excellent school for a novice sailor. It was on this year-long voyage on a merchant brig that young Nelson received his first practical knowledge of maritime affairs. At the same time, Rathbourne always kept the boy with him, paying close attention to his upbringing and training. However, he did it taking into account his own life experience. Subsequently, Nelson recalled his first voyage to the West Indies: “If I did not succeed in my education, then, in any case, I acquired a lot of practical skills, an aversion to the Royal Navy and learned the motto popular among sailors:“ In the fight for awards and glory ahead, brave sailor! " It took a long time before I could somehow get used to the battleship, the prejudice was so deeply rooted. Why, the efforts made to poison the young mind were no small ones! "
In November 1773, the Seahorse brig left the Spithead Raid with the Salisbury frigate flying Hughes' rear admiral flag. Swimming was going well. When the ships passed the Cape of Good Hope, Nelson had already passed the exam for an l-class sailor. Now he learned to keep logs and navigational logs. During the cruise, the Seahorse collided with a pirate ship, exchanged cannon volleys with it, and both ships continued on their way safely. For all its insignificance, it was this episode that became the first baptism of fire for young Nelson.
In January 1775, Hughes' detachment arrived in Madras. There the ships took on board eighty-nine boxes of local precious stones, which were to be transported to England, guarded by Salisbury's cannons. Freight further enriched the already fabulously wealthy Rear Admiral. Nelson spent almost a year sailing the Indian Ocean. During this time, the frail midshipman has matured, stretched out and got stronger. However, the climate turned out to be harmful for Horatio, and at the end of 1775 he was overthrown by a fever. Every day the condition of the young midshipman worsened. The medical council, which examined Nelson, made a decision on his immediate sending to the metropolis. The sick midshipman was taken to the ship "Dolphin", which was leaving with cargo to England.
In the spring of 1777, Horatio Nelson arrived in London to sit examinations for the rank of lieutenant. According to the established rules for running for ranks, the examination committee was to consist of three experienced captains. The Admiralty Council Commission, which was to take Nelson's exams, was headed by his beloved Uncle Maurice. Thus for Horatio Nelson adolescence ended and the time of maturity began.
FROM LIEUTENANT TO CAPTAIN
Captain Locker introduced the lieutenant to the commander-in-chief of the British fleet in American waters, Admiral Peter Parker. So Nelson became the third (junior) lieutenant on Parker's flagship Bristol. Soon, Nelson was already the first (senior) lieutenant on the Bristol.
Already in December of the next, 1778, he became a commander and was appointed captain of the Badger brig, which was assigned to protect the settlers who settled on the eastern coast of Latin America from attacks by American pirates. The commander is not even a full twenty years old, and he is full of hopes for a brilliant future. So, having only twenty years of age, Nelson became a captain. But soon he fell ill again and retired from marine affairs for a long time.
MARRIAGE AND THE CAPTAIN OF "AGAMEMNON"
It began with the fact that Nelson was asked to take a passing flight to the island of Barbados by Miss Perry Herbert, the niece of the head of the island of Nevis, John Herbert. As a true gentleman, Nelson could not refuse the lady. Upon arrival in Nevis, Perry Herbert invited Nelson to visit. And there Nelson saw the one with which he fell in love at the same moment. This was the second niece of John Herbert, the young widow Francis Nisbet, who lived with her uncle. Relatives, as is customary, called her in the home circle more affectionately: Fanny. It was under this family name that Francis Nisbet made history. On March 11, 1787, Nelson and Lady Fanny's long-awaited wedding took place. The priest of the local church married the young people.
February 1793 Nelson went to his duty station. Fanny did not want to be left alone in the pastor's house and decided to stay with her friends, and then rent an apartment in one of the coastal towns. Three days after leaving his father's house, Nelson stepped onto the deck of the Agamemnon, the ship that would bring him his first glory. He was then less than thirty-five years old.
THE BATTLE OF SAINT VINCENT AND FIRST GLORY
"Agamemnon" Nelson was included in the squadron of Vice Admiral Gotham, a pleasant man, but extremely passive and lack of initiative. By order of Lord Hood, Gotham with fourteen ships of the line set out to intercept the French fleet. Nelson, as always, volunteered to go on forward patrol. It was there that he was lucky.
Suddenly "Agamemnon" came across a 74-gun French battleship "Saira", which was lagging behind its fleet. A fierce battle ensued, which lasted two days. The forces were approximately equal, and the opponents could not defeat each other for a long time. As for the French, a weak wind prevented them from leaving the battlefield. Soon Nelson, with aimed fire, deprived the French battleship of the ability to move, and then from the Saira they noticed the approaching British squadron and the captain considered it best to lower the flag. The surrendered enemy ship was taken over by Lieutenant Andrews. The capture of the Saira was Nelson's first major naval victory, of which he could justly be proud.
In February 1797, as the Axis expected, Spain officially declared war on England. On February 14, Valentine's Day, the patron saint of all lovers, there was a rare fog in the area of Cape São Vicente (in the English pronunciation of Saint Vincent), in the far southwest of Portugal. When the wind dispersed it, it turned out that the English and Spanish fleets were half the range of visibility from each other. The British marched in a single wake column. The Spaniards in two: the first - in eighteen ships and the second - in eight. At the same time, the distance between the columns was recklessly large.
Finding that the British were much more than expected, Admiral Cordova was at a loss. It was too late to leave, and he ordered to build a traditional battle wake column, hoping that, with more firepower, he would still be able to keep Jervis at a respectful distance, and then gradually break away from him. Cordova did not even think about attacking himself. Of course, he expected the same formation from the British - in the best traditions of the old Anglo-Dutch wars.
However, Jervis decided otherwise. He ordered to raise a signal according to which his ships, following the same wake column, were to turn towards the Spaniards and, crossing their course at an acute angle, gradually dismember the enemy fleet into several separate groups, surround them and destroy them. Seeing that the British were beginning to decisively descend on his battle line, Cordova gave the order to reduce the distance between the ships as much as possible in order to prevent the British from cutting through their formation. Nelson's Captain was third in the British column. Realizing Cordova's intention in time, Nelson makes a desperate decision to thwart him. To do this, it was necessary to get out of the general system as quickly as possible and attack the Spaniards. Every minute was precious, and there was no time to wait for signals from the flagship. And Nelson decided to do as he saw fit in this situation. To understand the adventure that Nelson decided on, it is enough to recall that, according to the naval regulations, any violation by the captain of the established order of battle was punishable by death. "Captain" sharply turns its stem away from the enemy and sets up all the sails. From a distance, it looks like an escape. But, catching the wind, Nelson's battleship immediately turns around and, picking up speed, rushes straight into the middle of the Spanish fleet, whose ships have just begun to close their ranks. A quarter of an hour later, Nelson was already among the Spaniards. Seven Spanish ships of the line were now close to the Captain and immediately opened fierce fire. The Santissima-Trinidad fired the most energetic of all from the huge cannons. Hundreds of cannonballs fell on the Captain in an instant, and if the Spanish gunners had shot more accurately, Nelson would have had a bad time. For some time, his battleship alone withstood the onslaught of a good third of the enemy ships. However, it was clear that this could not last long. All hope was that Jervis would understand Nelson's maneuver and come to his aid. And he understood it! The Commander-in-Chief immediately ordered the Captain's rear neighboring ship, the Excellence, to support Nelson in whatever way it could. Vigorously firing from the cannons, the Excellence, under the command of an old and faithful friend of Captain Collingwood, made its way to the Captain, followed by two more battleships.
According to the official reports of the battle, the "Excelent" cannons fired at the enemy at intervals of some half a minute, while the Spaniards could respond only once every five minutes. Thus, for one Spanish core, the British answered with ten! Even taking into account the numerical superiority of the Spaniards, the situation was not in their favor. Among other things, the English ships, skillfully maneuvering, entered the stern of the Spaniards and now literally cleaned their decks with merciless longitudinal fire. Unable to withstand such a frantic pressure, two Spanish ships of the line soon lowered their flags. But that was only the beginning of the rout. Nelson then boarded two more Spanish ships one by one. However, the British did not succeed in achieving a complete victory.
Having lost four ships of the line, the rest of the Spanish fleet still managed to break away from the enemy and go to their ports. The British ships were so badly beaten in the battle that there was no question of serious pursuit of the Spaniards. The victory at St. Vincent was needed by England like air. The country had just received two slaps in the face: Toulon and the expulsion of the fleet from the Mediterranean. The anti-French coalition created with such difficulty burst. The islands fearfully awaited the invasion of the French, who had already gathered forces in the Dutch Texel. Victory at St. Vincent brought down a veritable waterfall of awards on Nelson. A week later, he was already rear admiral of the blue flag with the simultaneous appointment of a junior flagship of the Mediterranean fleet and a knight of the Order of the Bath, and therefore a nobleman. But most of all, Nelson was delighted with the large gold medal on the massive chain, which was received by all senior officers who participated in the Battle of St. Vincent. He immediately hung the medal around his neck and almost never parted with it.
THE BATTLE AT ABUKIR
An expedition to Tenerife soon took place, during which Nelson lost his arm. For a long time, doctors did not release him to the sea. But after completing a full course of recovery, he was immediately sent to battle with the French.
While heading for the Aboukir Bay, Nelson decided to attack primarily the vanguard and the center of the French fleet. Approaching the bay, Nelson assessed the disposition of the French. The entire French fleet, built in a single mile-long line, was at anchor. Four frigates were located closer to the coast. A small coastal battery covered the defenders from the right wing. The water area around the French fleet was surrounded by sandbanks that did not allow ships to approach the coast closer than three miles. It is believed that the total side salvo of the French squadron was 1186 guns, and from the British - 1030 guns. Finding the approach of the British, Brues ordered to deliver people from the shore to the ships as soon as possible. But it was already too late, most of them were not able to get to their combat posts until the end of the battle and only witnessed a grandiose battle.
Two brigs "Alert" and "Reiler" rushed towards the British squadron. They were supposed to lead the leading British battleships aground by false maneuver. The captain of the "Alert" acted especially desperately: he almost came close to the "Goliath", then boldly turned right in front of him and, setting all sails, rushed straight to the stone reef. "Alert" was lucky, and thanks to its shallow draft, miraculously slipped through the reef unharmed. The French navy watched with bated breath whether the British would peck or not. The British did not bite! Nelson quickly figured out this simple trick and ordered his captains not to be distracted by such things.
And the day was already slowly sinking. And hope again! Noticing that the British ships were drifting, Brues decided that Nelson had apparently postponed his attack until the next morning: who was attacking at dusk! If everything is so, then during the night he will be in time to prepare his fleet for defense and even then in the morning the British will be in trouble! However, what was clear to the French admirals was just as obvious to Nelson, and therefore he did not want to postpone his attack, and at six o'clock in the evening the movement of the English squadron was continued. Now it was finally clear to Vice Admiral Brues that the battle would follow immediately, as soon as the British ships came close to the range of a salvo. There can be no postponements until tomorrow! Now, with their last strength, in a hurry, the French straightened their battle line, put in additional anchors so that there was at least some opportunity to turn sideways towards the enemy during the battle. However, in a hurry and amid general confusion, far from everything was done.
Meanwhile, the leading Goliath and Zilies had already proceeded past the French coastal battery on the island of Aboukir. They fired at the British from the shore, but without much success. Then, having approached the leading French battleship "Guerrier", the British ships removed all sails, except for the cruisele, the battle began. "Conkeran" and "Spartan" discharged their starboard guns at the British, but their cannonballs lay on the water. "Goliath" has already managed to slip through the affected area, but "Zilies" has not yet reached it. While the French were reloading the cannons, the Zilies slipped past them safely. "Gerrier" did not fire a single shot at all. As it turned out, such an illiterate shooting of the leading French battleships was due to the absence of the vanguard commander in his place. Rear Admiral Blanke-Duchaila at this time was in a hurry to his ships on a boat from the "Orient", where he received the last instructions for the battle. Had the French admiral arrived on his ship some ten minutes earlier, or had delayed the attack of Nelson at least a little, the Aboukir battle would have begun with heavy losses for the British, but God was clearly on their side that day!
In the meantime, the rest of the squadron pulled up behind the two leading British ships, and immediately several ships unleashed a barrage of their fire on the unfortunate forward "Gerrie". Finally the French came to their senses. Goliath received its first batch of cannonballs from them. The rigging was immediately broken on it. I had to give up the anchor and, having settled down from the coast between the second and third French battleships, engage them in battle. Not far from the Goliath, the Zilies dropped anchor: it was easier to fight the French together. Once again, the British could not get enough of the fact that the French fire was so weak.
By this time, the main part of the British squadron had already approached the French line close and began to bypass it from the sea, thereby taking the enemy in two fires. At six o'clock forty minutes in the evening Nelson's flagship "Vanguard", having dropped anchor opposite the "Spartan" and "Aquilon", opened furious fire on both ships. On the shortest path reached their places of battle "Odasiez" and "Theseus". "Odasiez" settled down between the mutilated "Guerrier" and "Conkeran" and immediately began firing at them almost point-blank. Meanwhile, from the sea side the French were already bypassed by the third ship - it was "Orion". Discharging his guns in passing into the long-suffering "Guerrier", Somarets moved on to complete the encirclement of the French avant-garde. Having described a large circle, he walked along the starboard side of the "Theseus", which by that time was already in full swing with the French "Spartan". During this maneuver, Orion was bravely attacked by the small frigate Sares, whose captain bravely rushed to rescue his battleships.
For four hours, killing for the French, their rearguard only watched the battle, but did not even make an attempt to support their comrades, exhausted in an unequal battle. Only "Timoleon", having put the topsails, waited in vain for the signal to wean the anchor, but no one gave it to him.
In complete darkness, the battle subsided somewhat, only in some places the firing did not stop. However, with the first ray of the sun, it was continued again, and with even greater bitterness. At about six o'clock in the morning, the "Zilies", "Goliath" and "Theseus" weighed anchor. Obeying Nelson's signal, they attacked the French ships again. Soon the French battleship Mercury ran aground and raised a white flag.
At eleven o'clock in the morning, the battleships Generé, Wilhelm Tell and Timoleon, the frigates Justik and Diana, which had practically not participated in the battle before, raised all their sails and rushed to the exit from the bay. The last battleship "Timoleon", being under the wind, was unable to leave the bay and threw itself ashore. The fleeing French tried to pursue the "Zilies", but was returned to the squadron by order of Nelson. The commander did not want to take any more risks, since the deed was already done, and it was done brilliantly.
Of the thirteen French ships of the line, one was blown up, and eight were captured, two battleships and two frigates fled, and the wrecked ships of the line Timoleon and the brave Tonnant were standing near the English squadron, unable to give a move. On the Tonnanta, the sailors, following the orders of their deceased commander, nailed the flag to the mast. But Nelson no longer had the strength to attack. In such an uncertain situation, the opponents spent the rest of the day and all night. Only in the morning of July 23, Theseus and Leander weighed anchor and approached the Tonnant. He could no longer fight back. The few surviving members of the French crew blew up their ship and crossed over to the shore.
The result of the Aboukir battle was the loss of eleven ships and five thousand people by the French. The losses of the British amounted to 895 people. The French Mediterranean Fleet no longer existed!
TRAFALGAR: THE LAST TRIUMPH
nelson wellington admiral duke
Vice Admiral Nelson's flag has flown over the 104-gun Victory for two years now. According to the memoirs of contemporaries, by August 1805, Nelson was on the verge of complete nervous exhaustion. He needed at least a short rest. Despite the complexity of the situation, the Lords of the Admiralty decided to give Nelson a break. Soon he was already opening the package with the message that Vice Admiral of the Red Flag Nelson, in the order of seniority, had been promoted to the rank of Vice Admiral of the White Flag, the highest rank among vice admirals. This was a major promotion, followed by the rank of full admiral. At the same time, in a letter to Nelson, it was suggested that he go on vacation to improve his health. Nelson, of course, did not force himself to persuade. At this time, he once again missed Villeneuve, who took refuge in Toulon.
Nelson turned his ships towards Gibraltar. There he set foot on solid ground for the first time in two years. But the vacation did not last long, in early October the British government again called him into service. Nelson promptly presented a war plan, which was fully approved.
And in the early morning of October 21, when Nelson began to line up his fleet, maneuvering west of the enemy on the traverse of the Spanish Cape Trafalgar, lookouts reported that they saw many sails on the horizon. It was Villeneuve's fleet, marching in a crescent-shaped formation. Nelson looked at his watch: it was exactly five-thirty. The wind was weak. The allies marched in five columns, of which two to twelve ships were led by the Spanish admiral Gravine.
Nelson gave the order to begin preparations for battle, the ship of Admiral Collingwood became the leader. The battle that had begun became more and more fierce with each passing minute. Collingwood fought four enemy battleships at once. In this situation, he was saved only by the fact that they greatly interfered with each other.
Following the Victory, the remaining ships of Nelson's column began to engage one after another, firing crushing longitudinal volleys. The Franco-Spanish fleet almost immediately found itself in a hopeless position. His ships, isolated from each other and surrounded on all sides by the enemy, were now deprived of not only a single command, but also the will to win.
The British beat the French and the Spaniards with longitudinal volleys, and they did it from a distance of several meters. Given the excellent training of the British gunners, further resistance became reckless. Despite this, both French and Spanish ships fought with the ferocity of the doomed as long as they were able to withstand the crushing fire of the enemy.
Meanwhile, Neptune was firing at Victory, and soon it hits the bow of the flagship with a full-fledged side salvo. However, Nelson, not paying attention to this, stubbornly makes his way to the selected "Redutable". Coming together, both ships drift slowly. Realizing that the commander of "Redoubt" did not intend to give way to him, Nelson ordered to lead "Victory" to the wind and, giving his ship backward, decided to board the "Redoubt" side to side.
From the Redutable's masts, the English commander in his star-shining uniform could be seen pacing the deck. Several shots from the guns, and Nelson suddenly falls to his knees, his arm extended forward. They immediately pick him up. The fatal shot, according to a number of British historians, was fired by one of the Redutable's sailors. Subsequently, this was allegedly determined in the direction of the entrance of the bullet. At the same time, it was suggested that the shooter was not aiming at Nelson. During the shot, the vice admiral walked on the left side and was out of sight of the enemy riflemen on the Redoubt by Captain Hardy, who was much taller and thicker than Nelson. Therefore, the French shooter most likely aimed at Captain Hardy as a more significant target. However, unexpectedly for the shooter, Nelson turned around and was hit by his bullet instead of Captain Hardy.
The sailors carried the commander to the lower deck. Nelson asked to be covered with a handkerchief. He did not want the sailors to see their commander in such a helpless state.
From the memoirs of the physician William Beatty: “The captain congratulated His Lordship, already dying, on a brilliant victory. Hardy said that the victory is complete, however, he does not know how many enemy ships were captured, since they cannot be clearly distinguished. He was sure fourteen or fifteen.
His Lordship replied, "That's good, but I was counting on twenty." Then he said insistently, "Drop anchor, Hardy, drop anchor." To which the captain replied, "I believe, my lord, now Admiral Collingwood will take command." "As long as I'm alive - no!" Nelson exclaimed. He even tried with the last of his strength to rise. "No," he repeated, "drop anchor, Hardy." Then Nelson confessed to the captain: he feels that in a few minutes he will be gone, and added quietly: "Don't throw me overboard, Hardy." - "No way!" - assured that. Then the delirium began again. Nelson kept repeating: - Drink, drink, drink! Fan it, fan it! Rub my chest, rub!
After a quarter of an hour, he stopped speaking. For a while, he just silently opened and closed his eyes. The doctor felt the pulse: it was not there. Nelson died five minutes later.
At seventeen thirty the battle was over. The allies lost 18 ships, one of which was sunk and the rest were captured. Only the French vanguard managed to escape from the inferno of Trafalgar, part of which was intercepted and captured by another British squadron a few days later. Despite heavy losses, the Spanish admiral Gravina managed to escape from the Trafalgar hell, who, taking advantage of the reigning confusion, managed to break through to Cadiz.
The losses of the French and Spaniards amounted to up to seven thousand people. The British retained all their ships, although they were thoroughly destroyed. Their losses amounted to more than two thousand people. The position of the winners was rather difficult. The fresh wind that had begun threatened to turn into a storm, which the damaged ships could hardly withstand. This was used by Gravine, who a few days later managed to recapture several Spanish ships from the British.
Nelson himself was placed in a barrel to be later transferred to a coffin made from the mast of the French ship Orient, destroyed by the vice admiral at Aboukir. To keep the body intact, the barrel was filled with official ship rum. Despite the brilliant victory, flags at half-mast fluttered over the ships of the English fleet.
ECHO OF THE GREAT VICTORY
It is truly impossible to overestimate the importance of Trafalgar to England's future. This battle finally undermined the French naval power. Never again was France an equal competitor to England in the struggle for the ocean. Trafalgar also saved England from the immediate threat of Napoleon's invasion, which, no doubt, would have been the collapse of the entire English colonial empire.
After Trafalgar, the war between England and France was moved to the continent. The opponents remained, separated by the sea. It was a tiring fight in which Napoleon ultimately lost.
Trafalgar is the most instructive in terms of tactics. Nelson, developing a battle plan, clearly formulated the idea of naval combat, the idea of attack and its support. Nelson's ambition was to attack part of the enemy's forces, opposing them with the superior forces of the attacking party. He is anxious to have the maximum advantage in the direction of his main attack. At the same time, he takes on the most difficult task of supporting the attack (confronting nineteen enemy ships with his eleven ships!).
As for the junior flagship of Collingwood, he is given almost complete freedom of action and the opportunity for initiative. He gives Collingwood sixteen battleships to destroy fourteen enemy ships!
Nelson's example is also indicative in that throughout the entire battle he did not raise a single clarifying signal to his captains. Everyone knew what they should do. Nelson's maneuvers aimed at cutting through the formation must be compared with his desire to attack the ships of the enemy's commanding admirals in order to disorganize the enemy, violate his organizational integrity and deprive him of leadership.
It is also noteworthy that Nelson believed in himself and in his victory. This confidence is imbued with all his actions both before the battle and in the battle itself. This belief was shared by all his subordinates. Nelson's will completely dominated Villeneuve's will even before the battle began. All this predetermined the result of Trafalgar, which was a crushing defeat for some and a great victory for others.
WELLINGTON. YOUTH. CARIER START
Arthur Wellesley Wellington was born in Dublin, Ireland, into a noble but impoverished family. Son of Lord Garrett Colley, Earl of Mornington. He was brought up in aristocratic Eton, after which he chose a military career for himself. He graduated from the Angersk military school, graduated with valor. Already in 1787 he entered the royal military service, immediately becoming an officer in an infantry regiment.
Wellington advanced rapidly in service - by the age of 25 he was already a lieutenant colonel and commander of the 33rd Infantry Regiment. He received his baptism of fire in 1794 while participating in hostilities against the troops of Republican France in the Netherlands. When British troops left the territory of this country in the fall of the same year, Wellington commanded the rearguard and managed to ensure the British had an unhindered retreat.
In 1796-1805, Arthur Wellesley Wellington served in India, where he arrived with his infantry regiment. The Governor-General of India at that time was his brother Richard, who provided him with brilliant patronage. Wellington commanded the British forces in the conquest of the principality of Mysore and the Marathi principalities, which offered long and stubborn resistance.
In India, Arthur Wellesley Wellington scored his first victories. In 1799, he defeated Sultan Misora and distinguished himself in the assault on the city of Seringapatama. Four years later, with a detachment of 7 thousand people with 22 guns, he inflicted a complete defeat on the Maratha army of 40 thousand soldiers with a large number of long-obsolete guns. Wellington's troops captured the large Indian cities of Pune and Ahmadnagar, which stood at the crossroads of strategically important roads.
In India, General Wellington has a reputation as a resolute and capable military leader, a skillful administrator. It is no coincidence that after the capture of the city of Seringapatama, he was appointed its governor, to whom the whole region was subordinate.
Upon his return to England, Arthur Wellesley Wellington was solemnly knighted by the British crown, and in 1806 he was elected to the Parliament of Great Britain. For the next two years, he served as Secretary of State for Ireland.
PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH CAMPAIGNS
In 1807, during a short-term military conflict between Great Britain and Denmark, General Arthur Wellesley Wellington commanded British troops in the Battle of Kyoga and on August 29 won a victory that ultimately resolved the conflict between the two European countries - Copenhagen admitted to being defeated.
From 1810 to 1813, Wellington commanded the Allied forces in the Iberian Peninsula against the Napoleonic army that invaded Portugal from Spanish territory. He arrived in Portugal with the rank of Lieutenant General and at the head of the 5,000th British Expeditionary Force.
Thanks to the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force, the French siege of the city of Cadiz was lifted. The city became the temporary capital of Spain. In the winter of 1810, the British erected field fortifications north of the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, about 50 kilometers long - from the Tagus River (Tagus) to the Atlantic coast, which were equipped with several hundred guns.
French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte decided to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Now, two of his armies of approximately equal numbers acted on this territory - 65 thousand people each. The Portuguese army was commanded by one of the best Napoleonic commanders, Marshal Andre Massena, and the Andalusian - by Marshal Nicola Soult. The British commander had an army of 32,000, which consisted of 18,000 British and 14,000 Portuguese allies.
Marshal Massena launched an offensive against Portugal. On September 27, the Battle of Bussaco took place, in which the British army retreating to the Atlantic coast repelled all French attacks. Lieutenant General Arthur Wellington withdrew his troops to the fortified line Torres - Vedras (or otherwise Torij - Vedriz). Marshal André Massena, who had approached her, soon also withdrew his army back, since it began to experience great difficulties with the supply of provisions and was met with openly hostile attitude of the local population.
During the harsh winter of 1810-1811, the so-called border war was waged. Both sides sought to establish control over the mountain passes of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. British troops blockaded the city of Almeide, and Marshal Massena moved to the rescue of the French garrison. On May 5, 1811, the Battle of Fuente de Onoro took place. The British infantry squares successfully repelled the attacks of the enemy cavalry, and the battle did not give the desired result to either side, although the losses of the French were greater.
The battles in Portugal and Spain went on with varying success: victories alternated with defeats. Spanish partisan detachments provided enormous assistance to the allied forces, since a popular war broke out in this country against the army of Napoleon Bonaparte. In Spain, the French were under siege.
In the Iberian Peninsula, Wellington has won several big victories. Among them - the defeat of the French marshal Eugene at Vimieira, the capture of the Portuguese city of Oporto in the north of this country, forcing the troops of one of the best Napoleonic marshals Soult to retreat, capturing the fortress city of Badajoz and forcing the enemy to retreat to Madrid. There were also victories over the French troops at Talavera de la Reina, Salamanca (where he defeated the army of Marshal Marmont). On August 12, 1812, Wellington's army took the Spanish capital Madrid, where it captured 180 guns as booty.
June 1813, the Battle of Vittoria took place. With 90 thousand soldiers and 90 guns under his command, Arthur Wellesley Wellington decisively attacked the positions of the French army of King Joseph Bonaparte with four columns. They attacked at such a distance from each other that they could provide mutual support in the attack. During the battle, the center of the enemy position was defeated, and its flanks retreated. After Wellington's left column reached the Bayonne road, the French wavered and fled to Pamplona.
The Battle of Vittoria proved to be decisive in the War of the Pyrenees. The French army of King Joseph Bonaparte lost 7 thousand people and 143 guns, the winners got the royal treasury (5 million pounds) and a significant amount of ammunition. From Vittoria Wellington began pursuing the enemy army, pushing it towards the Pyrenees. The last battles on Spanish territory took place at Sororen and near the city of San Sebastian. The British won victories in them.
The remnants of the French troops left the Iberian Peninsula. The British Royal Army in November 1813, crossing the Bidasoa River, entered the territory of France. At Orthez, Wellington's troops fought the French, commanded by Marshal Nicola Soult, after which the defeated retreated to the city of Toulouse. On April 10, 1814, Wellington's troops launched an assault on Toulouse and knocked out the enemy, who lost 6.7 thousand people, while the British losses amounted to 4 thousand people.
RESULTS OF BATTLES IN PORTUGAL AND SPAIN
The news of the conclusion of peace in Paris and the abdication of Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte was received by the royal commander Arthur Wellesley in Toulouse, which was already occupied by his troops. As a result, he concluded a truce with Marshal Soult, and on that the anti-Napoleonic war in the south of France ended.
For the victory in the Battle of Vittoria, General Arthur Wellesley Wellington was promoted to field marshal general.
During the hostilities in Portugal and Spain, Wellington skillfully switched from defense to attack and used scorched earth tactics against the French, since he could count on the help of the Spanish partisans. He always remembered that the manpower and ammunition of the British Expeditionary Force was limited, so he tried in every possible way to avoid large casualties.
Wellington planned operations well and sent his troops forward with great caution, seeking to anticipate the actions of the French commanders. Local partisans supplied him with information about the enemy, his actions and movement.
Through scorched earth tactics in the Iberian Peninsula, Wellington learned to maneuver his troops well. He often took the French to those Spanish regions where it was difficult for them to find provisions. He himself reliably covered all the ways to the port cities, from where his troops received everything they needed from the British Isles. Napoleonic marshals were deprived of such supplies and the ability to receive reinforcements.
Wellington's victories in the Pyrenees are due to another important reason. Napoleon, forming the Great Army for the campaign against Russia in 1812, recalled from Spain the most experienced military leaders and selected units - the imperial guard and the Polish corps.
Field Marshal Wellington returned to London in triumph. In commemoration of his merits, he was awarded the title of Duke and allocated 300 thousand pounds sterling for the purchase of the estate. In England he was nicknamed the "Winner of Europe".
BATTLE AT WATERLOO
Arthur Wellesley Wellington was destined to once again become famous in the war against Napoleonic France. But only this time he had to fight not with her marshals, but against the French emperor himself. The Napoleonic "Hundred Days" became the pinnacle of his military glory for Field Marshal General Duke of Wellington.
When Napoleon Bonaparte from the island of Elba returned to France and took possession of Paris, Field Marshal Wellington was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied Anglo-Dutch army of 95 thousand people. She concentrated in Belgium, where there was another allied army - the 124-thousand-strong Prussian army under the command of Field Marshal Blucher.
In the north of France and Belgium, hostilities began again. Only this time Napoleon no longer had such a huge and experienced army, and next to him were not many of his marshals. The decisive battle of the opponents took place on June 18, 1815 at Waterloo in central Belgium. Wellington, together with the approaching Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher, inflicted a complete defeat on the Napoleonic army. The "Winner of Europe" fulfilled the parting words of the Russian Emperor Alexander I: "You have to save the world."
The battle was initially not in favor of the allies. At noon, Napoleon, with an army of 72,000 under his command, was the first to attack the 67,000 army of the Duke of Wellington. At first, the French pushed the British along the entire front. When the French cavalry, led by Marshal Nei, fearlessly attacked the British infantry, which had lined up in squares, Napoleon did not support it with an attack from his imperial guard, which was in reserve. Thus, the moment for the defeat of the center of the allied Anglo-Dutch army was lost.
The troops of Field Marshal Blucher appeared on the battlefield at Waterloo in the midst of the battle. General Georges Lobo's French corps attacked the Prussians. Napoleon made his last attempts to break through the center of the Anglo-Dutch army, but with the appearance of the main forces of Blucher's army, he sent a reserve imperial guard against the Prussians. But the one, deprived of cavalry support, was unable to develop the attack that had begun with success. The retreat of the Napoleonic Guard, which suffered heavy losses from cannon fire, from the position of the Prussian army became for Field Marshal Wellington the signal to start a counter-offensive by all means. Napoleon's army began to retreat hastily, and then fled.
In the battle of Waterloo, the parties suffered heavy losses: the British and the Dutch - 15 thousand people, the Prussians - 7 thousand, the French - 32 thousand people, including 7 thousand prisoners.
After the victory at Waterloo, the allied armies invaded the already defeated France and again occupied its capital Paris, from where the finally defeated Napoleon fled to the seaside city of Rochefort. The French Chamber of Deputies issues an ultimatum to the Emperor Napoleon: abdicate or be deposed. He surrendered to the British and on board the royal brig "Bellerophon" went into exile to the small rocky island of St. Helena, lost in the South Atlantic, where he was to spend the last days of his life and die in 1821. On November 20, 1815, the Second Paris Peace was concluded, which finally drew a line under the anti-French wars throughout Europe. Defeated France returned to the borders of 1790 and pledged to pay a huge indemnity to the winning countries. Field Marshal Wellington remained commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in France until the end of its occupation.
The victory at the Battle of Waterloo brought new honors and awards to Arthur Wellesley Wellington. So, in 1815, he received the title of Russian Field Marshal, and for successful actions against the French in the war of 1814 he was awarded the highest military award of the Russian Empire - the Order of St. George, 1st degree.
STATE ACTIVITIES
The famous English commander was involved in various state affairs. The "Iron Duke" took part in the work of the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, when the European monarchs divided the huge Napoleonic empire among themselves. Represented Great Britain at the Holy Alliance conventions in 1813 in Aachen and in 1822 in Verona. He was sent to Russia to congratulate Emperor Nicholas I on his accession to the throne.
From 1827 until the end of his life, Wellington remained commander-in-chief of the royal army. At the same time, in 1828-1830, he served as Prime Minister of Great Britain. In 1834-1835 he was acting foreign minister, and in 1841-1846 he was a member of the British government with the rank of minister without portfolio.
ON THE MEETING WITH ADMIRAL NELSON
In the Prime Minister's office, Nelson met with the Duke of Wellington. This was their only meeting, of which Wellington left some very interesting memories:
“Lord Nelson appeared to be two completely different people under different circumstances. I've only seen him once in my life, and probably not more than an hour. Shortly after my arrival from India, I arrived at the Colonial Office at Downing straight. I was ushered into a small reception area, where I saw another gentleman waiting to be received.
I instantly recognized him as Lord Nelson from his portraits and from the fact that he had no right hand. He did not know who I was, but immediately entered into a conversation with me, if it could be called a conversation: he spoke all the time alone and only about himself, and so smugly and stupidly that it surprised and almost angered me.
Probably, something in me made him think that I was an important person, because he left the room for a minute, apparently to ask the secretary who I was. He returned as a completely different person - both externally and internally. What I called inside of myself buffoonery disappeared, and he very intelligently started talking about the state of the country and the development of events on the continent. He displayed such knowledge of affairs in England and abroad that it surprised me as much (but more pleasantly) as the first part of our acquaintance. As a matter of fact, he reasoned like a military and statesman. The minister made us wait a long time, and I can swear that in the last 30 or 45 minutes our conversation was so interesting that I can't remember another one. By the way, if the minister had been more punctual and received Lord Nelson in the first quarter of an hour, I would have had the impression of frivolity and banality that others had. But luckily, I spoke to him long enough to make sure that he is truly a great man. However, I have never seen such a sudden and complete metamorphosis before. "
LAST YEARS OF LIFE
Duke Arthur Wellesley of Wellington had many other public duties in the latter years of his life. Concurrently with the post of commander-in-chief of the royal army, he served as Governor of the Tower, Lord Guardian of the Five Harbors and Chancellor of Oxford University, then the leading aristocratic institution of higher education.
Wellington was known as an accomplished diplomat. He tried to stay away from political parties fighting each other, but he was always ready to act as a mediator between them. The Queen of England herself turned to him more than once for advice.
Contemporaries and researchers note that Wellington was distinguished by an outstanding intelligence, a high consciousness of military and civic duty to England, and in matters of public policy, he was extremely reactionary, he was an ardent supporter of cane discipline in the army and strict class selection in the officer corps of the British armed forces.
For Britain, Duke Arthur Wellesley of Wellington has become a national hero. When he died, he was buried with truly royal honors in St. Paul's Cathedral.
CONCLUSION
So, we have considered the most important moments in our opinion of the life of the two great military leaders. Undoubtedly, every event in their lives somehow influenced their personality, character.
We have seen the clearest examples of battles and battles on land and at sea, which have gone down in history forever.
It is impossible to oppose Nelson and Wellington, each has played its own role in English history.
The military actions carried out by them have forever remained in the memory of millions, and are often associated only with them.
So, for example, the historical significance of the Battle of Trafalgar is enormous: Great Britain has become an absolute naval hegemon. Ships of all countries lowered their flags at the sight of a British ship. Until 1914, no one dared to challenge British power over the seas, and if they did, they were defeated, since they, above all, had to defend their own harbors.
Over the next 100 years, the "mistress of the seas" created a huge colonial empire that occupied a quarter of the Earth's land mass and collapsed only after the Second World War.
And after the victory at Waterloo, Napoleon threw the remnants of the army and fled to Paris. The defeat at Waterloo meant not just defeat in one battle, but the defeat of the entire campaign, the defeat of France in the war with the coalition.
It led to the repeated abdication of Napoleon from the throne (June 22), to a change in political power in France, and subsequently to its occupation by the allied armies and the restoration of the Bourbons. The Battle of Waterloo marked the last point in the history of the Napoleonic wars.
As the examples show, the significance of the battles is enormous. They changed the world, worthily defending their country, Motherland.
It is no coincidence that Admiral Nelson and the Duke of Wellington were buried with royal honors in St. Paul's Cathedral.
They became national heroes and will forever remain in people's memory. Their feats and victories deserve eternal praise and great admiration.
LIST OF USED LITERATURE
1.A. Nelson and his captains / De Livron // Marine collection. 1916.267 NQ 8-12; 1917. NQ 1.2. ISBN: 978-5-699-55867-4.
2.Admiral Nelson / Vladimir SHIGIN. - M .: Molodaya gvardiya, 2010 .-- 383 p.: Ill. - (Life of remarkable people: ser. Biogr .; issue 1230). ISBN 978-5-235-03278-1.
.Admiral Nelson: A Story of Life and Love / Edgington G .. M .: Progress, 1992. ISBN 5-01-003662-2.
.Admiral Nelson: from Naples to Trafalgar / Trukhanovsky V.G .. - “Vopr. history ", 1975, no. 8; ISBN: 978-5-699-32093-6.
.Admiral Nelson. / Trukhanovsky V.G. - M .: AST, 1980. ISBN 5-01-003662-2.
.Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington (1769-1852) / M.M. Kuriev, M.V. Ponomarev // Age of Napoleon: people and destinies / - M .: MIROS, 1997. - pp. 177-208. - Bibliography. 137 titles ISBN: 978-5-17-063611-2.
.Waterloo. The Last Campaign of Napoleon / Chandler David (ed. By A. Zotov), St. Petersburg, Sign, 2004 ISBN 978-9939-52-163-3.
.Wellington. Duke / Richard Aldington. - M .: Transitkniga, 2006 .-- 512 (Series: Great Generals) ISBN: 5-17-033096-0.
.Horatio Nelson: The Man You Need to Love Jordan D. / / The Great Admirals: Collection. M .: AST, 2002. ISBN 0-306-80618-5.
.History of England / Robin Eagles. - M.: Astrel, 2008 .-- 294 ISBN: 9785-17-047178-2.
.History of the British Navy from the French Revolution to the Battle of Navarino. James D. SPb., 1845.
.The fate of the admiral: Triumph and tragedy Trukhanovsky V.G .. M .: Molodaya gvardiya, 1984. ISBN 5-7654-2831-2.
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(01.5.1769, Dublin, - 14.9.1852, Kent), English statesman and diplomat, military leader, Field Marshal (1813).
Descended from an aristocratic family known from the 16th century; 3rd son of Guerreth Wellesley, Earl of Mornington and Anne, daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, Viscount Dungannon. He was brought up at a prestigious educational institution in Eton. He received his military education at the Angersk military school in France. In 1787 he entered military service in the 73rd Infantry Regiment and was appointed adjutant to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Then he was transferred to the 76th Infantry Regiment, which was in formation in Ireland. In 1787 he was promoted to lieutenant. In 1793 he became a major in the 33rd Infantry Regiment, and in September of the same year - a lieutenant colonel. In 1794 Wellesley took part in a campaign in the Netherlands. During the campaign, he became a brigade commander. The campaign was generally unsuccessful, but Wellesley learned several valuable lessons. He concluded that many of the campaign's miscalculations were due to command errors and poor organizational performance at headquarters. In 1797, as part of a regiment, he was sent to India, where he distinguished himself in the 4th Anglo-Mysore War, and especially during the assault on Seringapatam. This victory brought the British dominance in South India, and Wellesley was appointed governor of the city. In 1801 he received the rank of brigadier general, and in April of the following year - major general. In November 1802 he was appointed to command the British troops in the second Anglo-Maratha war. The general defeated the Hindus in the battles at Asai and Argaon, and then captured the fortress of Gavilgarh, forcing thereby to conclude a peace beneficial for England.
Returning to Europe in 1806, he was elected a deputy from the city of New Port to the lower house of the English parliament. In 1807 he took part in the campaign to Copenhagen. During the Battle of Copenhagen in August of that year, Wellesley commanded an infantry brigade. He also took part in the Battle of Kyoga, in which his soldiers took about 1,100 prisoners.
In September 1807 he returned to England, and in April of the following year he was promoted to lieutenant general. In June 1808 Wellesley took command of an expeditionary force of 9,000 men, which was supposed to be sent to the Spanish colonies in South America to help the Latin American Francisco Miranda, the leader of the struggle for the independence of the Spanish colonies in South America. Instead, however, his corps was sent to Portugal, where they were to join up with 5,000 soldiers sent from Gibraltar.
In 1808 Wellesley took command of the British troops on the Pyrenean Peninsula and, after several skirmishes with French troops, defeated the troops of Marshal J. Junot at Vimeiro. Then the English general returned to England for a short time, but in April 1809 he again arrived in Portugal, where, having made a bold transition with the allied forces across the Douro River, he drove the French out of Porto. During the retreat, the 24,000-strong French army lost about 5,000 people killed, wounded and captured. On May 12, British troops approached the city of Oporto, forcing Marshal N. Soult to leave it with significant losses. In September 1809 Wellesley received the title of Viscount of Wellington. 1810 was marked by the defense of the Torres-Vedras fortified line, for which the Spanish Cortes awarded Wellington the title of Marquis of Torres-Vedras. For the victory of Ciudad Rodrigo, Wellington was awarded the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigue and became a Spanish grandee, and the English prince-regent granted him to the counts. In the battle of Salamanca on July 22, 1812, the Anglo-Spanish troops of Wellington defeated the French army of Marshal O. Marmont. Wellington soon occupied Madrid, but after an unsuccessful attack on Burgos was forced to retreat to Portugal again. When Napoleon began to suffer defeat from the Russian, Austrian and Prussian armies, he was forced to withdraw part of the French forces from Spain. Wellington took advantage of the favorable situation, again occupied Madrid, and on June 21, 1813, won a brilliant victory at Vittoria. Wellington returned to London in triumph. For the victory in the Battle of Vittoria, which freed Spain from French rule, he was promoted to field marshal general. In commemoration of his merits, he was awarded the title of Duke, and in England he was nicknamed "Winner of Europe".
In October 1813 Wellington joined the British army in France, won several victories over Marshal Soult and occupied Toulouse, where he learned of the conclusion of peace in Paris. At the end of the war, he was generously awarded by the British government: the parliament allocated him 300 thousand pounds sterling to buy the estate. On April 28, 1814, the Russian government awarded the British Commander-in-Chief of the Order of St. George, 1st Class "... for successful actions against the French."
In 1814-1815. The Duke of Wellington was ambassador extraordinary in Paris, and from February 1815, Great Britain's delegate to the Congress of Vienna. When Napoleon, having left the island of Elba and again gathered the French army under his banners, Wellington was entrusted with the command of the allied Anglo-Dutch army, with which he, with the assistance of the troops of the Prussian field marshal Blucher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. During the battle, the British lost about 15 thousand people, the Prussians - 7 thousand. The losses of the Dutch and Belgians who left the battlefield were insignificant. The French lost up to 25 thousand killed, wounded and captured, their army practically ceased to exist, and the allied armies invaded France and occupied Paris. After the conclusion of the second Paris Peace Treaty, Wellington, with the consent of all allied monarchs, was appointed commander-in-chief of the occupying forces in France and remained there until the very end of the occupation. Participant of the Vienna Congress. 1814 - 1815
Upon his return to his homeland, Wellington returned to politics. In December 1818 he was appointed to the post of General Feldzheichmeister and Head of the Armaments Chamber in the Tory government of Lord R. Liverpool. The Armaments Chamber was responsible for ammunition, armaments, equipment and war materials for the British Army and Royal Navy. Her area of responsibility also included transport for guns, taking care of coastal fortresses, managing artillery and engineering troops, and issuing military cards. In 1818 Wellington took part in the Aachen Congress of four states - Russia, Prussia, Austria and England, which renewed the treaty of alliance against changes in France "threatening the peace and security of its neighbors." In 1822, he became a member of the regular congress of the Holy Alliance, held in Verona, where measures to combat revolutionary movements in Europe were discussed. In 1826 the duke was sent by the British government to Russia to take part in the celebrations of the accession to the throne of Emperor Nicholas I. served as prime minister, in 1834 - 1835. Minister of Foreign Affairs, in 1841 - 1846. minister without portfolio.
For his military activity he was awarded the highest military ranks of a number of states: the chief marshal of Portugal (1809), the captain general of Spain (1809), the field marshal general of Russia (1815), the field marshal of Hanover (1813), the field marshal of Holland (May 1815), the general Field Marshal of Prussia (1818), Field Marshal of the Austrian Empire.
According to the memoirs of his contemporaries, the Duke of Wellington was distinguished by his intelligence, a sense of duty, and, in particular, his unyielding firmness of character. He died on September 14, 1852. His body was interred with royal honors in St. Paul's Cathedral.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Born on May 1, 1769 in Duncanquestle - died on September 14, 1852. British commander and statesman, Field Marshal (July 3, 1813), participant in the Napoleonic Wars, winner at Waterloo (1815). 25th (from 22 January 1828 to 22 November 1830) and 28th (from 17 November to 10 December 1834) Prime Minister of Great Britain.
Third son of Lord Garrett Colley, Earl of Mornington and Anne, eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, Viscount Dungannon. He was born, most likely, in his parents' house in Dublin (Ireland), Upper Merrion Street, 24. His biographers usually, referring to the publication in the newspaper of that time, claim that he was born on May 1, 1769 and was baptized on the same day. His mother, Anna Mornington, claimed in 1815 that Arthur was born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. There are other likely birthplaces.
Wellington spent his childhood in two family houses - in a large house in Dublin and in Dungan Castle, located 5 km north of Samehill on the road to Trim, County Meath (Leinster province). In 1781, Arthur's father dies and the earl's title is inherited by his eldest son, Richard.
Wellington attended Diocese School in Trim, then attended White Academy in Dublin, and finally transferred to Brown School in Chelsea, London. In 1781 Wellington was admitted to Eton College, where he studied until 1784. Because of his loneliness there, he came to hate college and so it is unlikely that he could say the words attributed to him: "The Battle of Waterloo was won in the Fields of Eton." In addition, Eaton had no fields of play at the time. In 1785, the lack of achievements at Eton, together with the financial difficulties of the family after the death of his father, forced the young Wellesley with his mother to move to Brussels. For the first twenty years of his life, Wellesley did not show any ability. The absence of any goals and interests greatly upset the mother, who even said: "I don't even know what to do with my incapable Arthur."
A year later Wellesley entered the Royal Riding Academy in Angers, France. Here he showed significant success, became a good rider and learned French, which was very useful to him in the future. On his return to England at the end of 1786, he impressed his mother with his accomplishments.
In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders to command the British forces of an allied army intent on invading revolutionary France. In 1794, the 33rd regiment was sent there for reinforcements. Wellesley, who had just bought a Major on April 30, 1793, boarded a ship in Cork in June for Flanders for his first real war. Three months later, on September 30, 1793, he bought the rank of lieutenant colonel. During the campaign, he became a brigade commander, in September his brigade came under fire east of Breda, shortly before the Battle of Boxtel.
In the winter, for the remainder of the campaign, his unit defended the line of the River Baal, and he himself became uncomfortably ill due to the damp weather. Although the campaign was generally unsuccessful, the Duke of York's army returned home in 1795, but Wellesley learned several valuable lessons, including continuous fire against advancing enemy columns and the use of naval support. He concluded that many of the campaign's miscalculations were due to command errors and poor organizational performance at headquarters. He later remarked that the time spent in the Netherlands "at least taught me what not to do, and it will forever remain a valuable lesson."
Returning to England in March 1795, Wellesley was re-elected Member of Parliament in Trim for a second term. He had hoped to get the post of military secretary in the new Irish government, but the new Lord Lieutenant, Lord Camden, offered him only the post of Inspector General in the Board of Ordnance. Refusing this assignment, he returned to his regiment, which in Southampton was preparing to sail to the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet to return to Poole, in the south of England. The regiment was given time to put itself in order, and after a few months at Whitehall they decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was given the rank of colonel on May 3, 1796, and a few weeks later, along with the regiment, was sent to Calcutta.
Wellesley took part in the unsuccessful Anglo-Russian campaign to the north of Germany, reaching the Elbe with his brigade. Upon his return, Wellesley had good news: thanks to his new rank and status, Kitty Packingham's family had given permission to marry her. Arthur and Kitty were married on April 10, 1806 in Dublin. The marriage subsequently turned out to be unsuccessful, and the two lived separately for many years while Wellesley fought in the wars. In January 1806 Wellesley was elected to the lower house of Parliament from Rye (East Sussex) as a Tory candidate and retired from the army for a long time.
In 1807 he was elected from the cities of Traley, Mitchell, and, finally, Newport on the Isle of Wight in the south of England, of which he was a deputy in 1807-1809. Then in the same 1807 he was appointed Secretary of State for Ireland and at the same time became a member of the Privy Council of Great Britain. While in Ireland, he made a verbal promise that the existing punitive laws against Catholics would be applied with great restraint. Perhaps this indicates his intention to subsequently support the emancipation of Catholics.
On April 25, 1808, he was promoted to lieutenant general. In June 1808, Wellesley assumed command of an expeditionary force of 9,000, which was supposed to be sent to the Spanish colonies in South America to help the Latin American revolutionary Francisco Miranda. Instead, however, his corps was sent to Portugal, where they were to join up with 5,000 soldiers sent from Gibraltar.
After completing all the preparations, the army departed from Cork on July 12, 1808, to fight against the French in the Iberian Peninsula. According to historian Robin Neilands (Neillans), “Wellesley had already acquired the experience on which his subsequent victories were based. He knew about command and control of troops from the bottom to the top, about the importance of the rear and supply, the conduct of hostilities in a hostile environment. He had political weight and was aware of the importance of support from the metropolis. The main thing is that he understood how, by setting achievable goals and relying on his own forces and means, it is necessary to conduct and win military campaigns ”.
Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Rolis and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808, but was removed from command immediately after Vimeiro. General Hugh Dalrymple signed the strange Sintra Convention, according to which the British Royal Navy pledged to remove the French army from Lisbon with all its booty, and insisted on the only member of the government, Wellesley, joining the Convention. He retained the post of Secretary of State for Ireland, equal to the ministerial. In Britain itself, the Convention was considered a shame. Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to England to appear before a commission of inquiry. Wellesley agreed to sign a preliminary truce, but did not sign the convention and was eventually acquitted.
Meanwhile, Napoleon himself invaded Spain with his veterans to crush the rebellion. The new commander of the British forces in the Iberian Peninsula, John Moore, was killed in the Battle of A Coruña in January 1809.
Although, in general, the war with the French on the continent was not in favor of the British, the Pyrenean theater of operations became the only place where the British, in alliance with the Portuguese, offered serious resistance to the French and their allies. A new expedition to Holland was disastrous due to organizational miscalculations typical of Britain at the time. Wellesley sent a memorandum to the Minister of War, Lord Castlereagh, regarding the defense of Portugal. In the memo, he emphasized the importance of Portugal's mountainous borders and justified the choice of Lisbon as the main base for the troops, since the English fleet could help defend it. Castlereagh and the Cabinet of Ministers approved the document and appointed Wellesley the commander of all British Expeditionary Force in Portugal.
Wellesley arrived in Lisbon on April 22, 1809 aboard the former French frigate Surveyant, narrowly escaping a shipwreck. Having received reinforcements, he went on the offensive. In the second battle of Porto, he, using surprise and speed, crossed the Duero River in the afternoon on May 12 and drove the troops of Marshal Soult from the city of Porto.
After securing Portugal, Wellesley invaded Spain to join forces with General Gregorio de la Cuesta. The combined forces were preparing to attack Marshal Victor's first corps at Talavera on 23 July 1809. But Cuesta reluctantly agreed to the operation and persuaded to postpone the offensive for a day. The delay allowed the French to retreat. Cuesta recklessly sent his army after Victor and found himself face to face with almost the entire French army in New Castile - Victor annexed the garrisons of Toledo and Madrid to his troops. The Spanish retreated swiftly, with two British divisions advancing to cover their withdrawal.
The next day, July 27, at the Battle of Talavera, the French launched an offensive in three columns. Wellesley repelled all attacks on this and the following days, but with heavy losses for his army. It soon became clear that after the battle, Soult moved south, threatening to cut off the British from Portugal. On 3 August Wellesley marched east to stop Soult, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spaniards. However, it turned out that the French force was 30 thousand people and Wellesley ordered a light cavalry brigade to race with all its might and capture the bridge over the Tagus River at Almaras before the French arrived. Having secured communications and supplies with Lisbon, Wellesley decided to reconnect with Cuesta. However, it turned out that the Spaniards left the wounded British to the French and showed themselves to be completely unreliable people, promising and then refusing to supply British troops, irritating Wellesley and sowing discontent between the English and Spanish allies. Lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of the arrival of new French troops in the spring (including the possible appearance of himself) forced the British to retreat to Portugal.
In 1809, Arthur Wellesley receives the title of Viscount Wellington.
In 1810, Portugal was invaded by a large new French army under the command of Marshal Andre Massena. Both in England and in the British Expeditionary Army, the mood was pessimistic: everyone believed that the troops would have to be evacuated from Portugal. Instead, Wellington detained the French at the Battle of Bussaco. He then fortified the peninsula on which Lisbon is located by erecting massive earthworks, the so-called Torres Vedras lines. They were erected in deep secrecy, and their flanks were defended by the Royal Navy. The advancing French army rested on a solid defense, the troops began to starve and after six months they were forced to retreat. The pursuit, organized by the British, was thwarted by a series of counterattacks by the French rearguard under the command of Marshal Ney.
In 1811, Massena went to Portugal again to free Almeida; Wellington barely managed to stop the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro on 3-6 May. On May 16, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought the "army of the South of France" under the command of Soult. The Battle of Albuera was bloody for both sides, but did not bring any decisive victory. Wellington was promoted to full general on July 31 for his services. The French lifted the siege of Almeida and eluded the pursuit of British troops, but retained in their hands the Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the "keys" to the roads through the mountain passes to Portugal. For military service in Portugal Wellesley was ranked among the Portuguese nobility with the award of the title of Count of Vimeiro.
In January 1812, Wellington captured Ciudad Rodrigo, taking advantage of the fact that the main forces of the French went to winter quarters. So that the garrison of the fortress did not have time to receive help, the Anglo-Portuguese army stormed the fortress in a fairly short time. Then the troops moved to the south, laid siege to Badajoz on March 16 and after almost a month of fighting captured this fortress by night assault with heavy losses. Seeing the results of the bloody massacre at the breaches of the fortress, Wellington lost his usual composure and cried.
His army now consisted of veteran British soldiers, reinforced by retrained units of the Portuguese army. Heading for Spain, he defeated the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of the latter's failures in maneuvers. The battle allowed the liberation of Madrid. As a reward, he was made Earl and then Marquis of Wellington and was appointed commander of all Allied forces in Spain. Wellington attempted to take the all-important Burgos fortress, which linked Madrid to France. However, the setback, caused primarily by the lack of siege weapons, forced him to retreat headlong, losing more than 2,000 people killed.
The French left Andalusia, and the marshals Soult and Marmont united their forces. By uniting, the French outnumbered the British, putting the latter in a dangerous position. Wellington withdrew his army, linked up with a smaller corps under Roland Hill and began to retreat into Portugal. Marshal Soult dodged the attack.
In 1812 Wellesley was granted the Portuguese titles of Marquis of Torres Vedras and Duke da Vitoria ("Duke of Victory"), by decrees on behalf of Queen Mary, for services to the people of Portugal. This was the only time that a foreigner received the hereditary title of Portuguese duke.
In 1813 Wellington launched a new offensive, this time against the French lines of communication. He passed through the highlands, the Traz-uz-Montis region north of Burgos and transferred his supply line from Portugal to the Spanish northern port of Santander. This forced the French to leave both Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to flank the French lines, Wellington overtook and defeated the army of King Joseph Bonaparte at the Battle of Vitoria. Thanks to this victory, he received the rank of British Field Marshal. He personally led the column to the center of the French, and the other columns, led by Thomas Graham, Roland Hill and George Ramsey, Earl of Dalhousie, bypassed the French on the right and left. This battle inspired Beethoven to create Opus 91, Wellington's Victory. British troops left the formation to plunder the abandoned carriages of the French instead of pursuing the defeated enemy. In the face of such a flagrant violation of discipline, a furious Wellington wrote a famous report to the Secretary of Defense and the Colonies, Earl Henry Bathurst: "We have the scum of the Earth as ordinary soldiers."
However, later, when his anger cooled, he added to his comment with praise for his soldiers, saying that although many of the people were "earthly scum, it is truly amazing that we make them such beautiful guys as they become."
After taking the small fortress of Pamplona, Wellington surrounded the fortress of San Sebastian. However, the French garrison turned out to be unexpectedly resilient and repelled an assault attempt. The Allies lost 693 killed and 316 captured and suspended the siege at the end of July. Soult tried to unblock the fortress, but the Spanish Galician army repelled this attempt at the Battle of San Marciale, near Irun. The Allies were then able to consolidate their positions and narrow the ring around San Sebastian, which fell in September despite active defenses. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralized and badly battered army to retreat to France. The path is marked by the Battle of the Pyrenees, the Battle of Bidassoa, the Battle of the Nivelles River. Wellington's army launched an invasion of southern France, winning the battles of the Nives and Orthez. The last battle between Wellington and Soult was the Battle of Toulouse, in which the Allies suffered heavy losses in the assault on the French redoubts, losing 4,600 soldiers. Despite the victory, news came of the abdication of Napoleon and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the battle, negotiated a ceasefire with Wellington and left the city.
For his exploits, Wellington was generously rewarded by the English government: the prince-regent granted him the title of duke (his descendants still bear this title), and parliament appointed 300 thousand pounds sterling for the purchase of the estate. Since the freshly baked Duke, and formerly the Viscount, Earl and Marquis of Wellington, did not appear in England until the end of the Pyrenees War, he was awarded all the title patents in one unique, all-day ceremony. Although Wellesley fought for nearly six years to rid Spain of the French and dethrone Joseph Bonaparte, his services have received little recognition in this country: in the history taught in Spanish schools, the contribution of Wellington and his English and Portuguese soldiers is minimal. He received the Spanish title of Duke de Ciudad Rodrigo, and Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep some of the pieces of art from the royal collection, which he recaptured from the French. In the monument dedicated to the victory at Vitoria, there is a large figure of Wellington on a horse.
In Britain, he was popular not only for his military victories, but also for his image and appearance. His victories coincided with the heyday of Romanticism with its inherent attention to the person's personality. The Duke's style of clothing influenced fashion in Britain: a tall, slender silhouette, a black plumed hat, a luxurious and at the same time austere uniform and white trousers became very popular.
He was appointed ambassador to France. He then replaced Lord Castlereay as Britain's Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna, where he staunchly defended France's position in the post-war balance of power in Europe. With the reform of the Order of the Bath on January 2, 1815, Wellington received the rank of Knight Grand Cross instead of the rank of ordinary knight of the order.
On February 26, 1815, Napoleon fled Elba and returned to France. In May, he regained control of the country and faced a new, seventh coalition against himself. Wellington left Vienna for Belgium to take command of the Anglo-German army and the Dutch-Belgian allies. The Prussian army of Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher was stationed nearby.
Napoleon's plan was to cut off the Allied and Prussian armies from each other and defeat them one by one even before the Austrian and Russian troops arrived. Only in this way did the French have a chance to cope with the overwhelming numerical superiority of the coalition forces. After the victory, Napoleon would look for ways to make peace with Austria and Russia.
French troops invaded Belgium, defeated the Prussians at Ligny, and at the Battle of Quatre Bras did not allow Wellington to come to the rescue of the Prussians. These events forced the British and their allies to retreat to the high ground near the village of Mont Saint-Jean. on the road to Brussels, south of Waterloo. On June 17, heavy rain began, which slowed down the movement. The next day, the Battle of Waterloo took place. Wellington fought against Napoleon for the first time. The Duke led an Anglo-Dutch-German army of approximately 73,000 men, 26,000 (36%) of whom were British.
Battle of Waterloo began with a diversionary attack by the French division on the fortified chateau Ugumon. After a fire raid of 80 guns, Count d'Erlon's I French Corps was the first to attack. D'Erlon's warriors struck into the center of the enemy and the allied forces, located in front of the hill, retreated in disarray to the main position. D'Erlon's corps then stormed the most fortified Allied position, La-et-Sainte, but to no avail. An Allied division commanded by Lieutenant General Thomas Picton met the remnants of D'Erlon's corps face-to-face, and there was a close-range firefight in which Picton was killed. During this skirmish, the Earl of Uxbridge led his two cavalry brigades against the enemy, took the French infantry by surprise, pushed them back to the foot of the slope, and took two French imperial eagles. However, the attackers overestimated their strength. Napoleon threw fresh cavalry units at them, which inflicted huge losses on the British and pushed them back.
Just before 4:00 pm, Marshal Ney noticed a clear mass retreat at the center of Wellington's prose. He took the evacuation of the dead and wounded to the rear as the beginning of the retreat and decided to take advantage of this. Ney himself at this time had small infantry reserves on the left flank, since most of the infantry was either sent to a useless attack on the Chateau Ugumon, or defended the right flank. Therefore, Ney decided to break through the center of Wellington with an attack of some cavalrymen.
At about 16:30 the first Prussian IV corps under the command of Friedrich Bülow arrived. The corps arrived just as the attack by the French cavalry was in full swing. Bülow sent 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont-La Haie area, while the brigade's horse battery and artillery attached to the brigade deployed to support its left flank. Napoleon sent Count Lobau with his corps to intercept the remainder of Bülow's IV corps, heading for the village of Planchenois. The 15th Brigade forced the Lobau corps to retreat in the direction of Planchenois. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also advanced with six battalions on Planchenoit. Napoleon sent all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who now found himself in a severely constrained position. The Young Guard counterattacked and, after fierce shooting, defended Planchenois, but they themselves were counterattacked and driven out. Napoleon had to send two battalions of the Old Guard to Planchenois and after a merciless struggle they again captured the village.
The French cavalry attacked the British infantry square many times, always with heavy losses for the French, but little for the British. Ney himself was thrown from his horse four times. In the end, it became obvious even to Ney that much could not be achieved with cavalry alone. Belatedly, he organized a joint attack by infantry and cavalry, using Bachelet's division and Colonel Tissot of Foix's division (both units of Ray's II corps) and what remained combat-ready from the French cavalry. This attack was directed along almost the same route as the previous attacks of the heavy cavalry.
Meanwhile, at about the same time, when Ney stormed the center and right flank of Wellington's position with a combined effort, Napoleon gave Ney the order to capture La Hé Santé at all costs. Ney did this with what was left of D'Erlon's hull shortly after 6:00 pm. Ney then moved his mounted artillery up, closer to the center of Wellington, and began to smash his infantry squares with buckshot at close range. All this simply destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to be combined to build a viable square. Wellington's center was now on the verge of collapse and was vulnerable to French attacks. Fortunately for Wellington, the Prussian corps of Pirch I and Zieten arrived. Cyten's corps allowed two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeler from the edge of Wellington's left flank to move and stand behind the depopulated center. Pirch's corps followed Bülow's reinforcements and together they recaptured Planchenois and again the road to Charleroi began to be shot through by Prussian cannonballs. The value of the reinforcements received at that critical moment of the battle was difficult to overestimate.
The French army now fiercely attacked the coalition forces along the entire front. The highest point was the moment when Napoleon at 19:30 sent the Imperial Guard to attack. The Imperial Guard attack consisted of five battalions of the Middle Guard, but not the grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of buckshot and rifle fire, thinning a lot, about 3,000 guards reached the western part of La Haye Sainte and divided into three attacking groups. One, consisting of two battalions of grenadiers, defeated the first coalition line and moved on. A relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, led by Lieutenant General Chasse, and the Allied artillery struck the flank of the French grenadiers. This could not stop the advance of the guard, Chasse ordered his first brigade to go into the bayonet against the numerically superior French, which finally managed to stop the French columns.
Westward, 1,500 British Guards Infantry soldiers, commanded by Major General Peregrin Maitland, took refuge on the ground, seeking protection from French artillery. As soon as the two Chasseur battalions, the second group of the Imperial Guard, appeared, the Maitland Guards stood up and met them with volleys almost at point-blank range. The Chasseurs turned to counterattack, but began to hesitate. The bayonet attack of the guards threw them back. But a third group arrived to help, a fresh battalion of Chasseurs. The British Guards retreated, pursued by the Chasseurs, but the latter were stopped by the 52nd Light Infantry Regiment, which turned to the French flank, opened devastating fire on them, and then rushed into the attack. Under the impetuous onslaught, the ranks of the French were broken.
The remnants of the Imperial Guard fled. Panic spread along the French lines with the deafening news: “La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut! " ("Guards are retreating. Save yourself, who can!") Wellington got up on the stirrups of his horse, nicknamed "Copenhagen" and began to wave his hat. It was a symbolic sign of the transition to the offensive of the entire Allied line of forces, while the Prussians had already captured the French positions in the east. The French army fled from the battlefield in disarray. Wellington and Blucher met at the Belle Alliance inn on the road that traversed the battlefield from north to south, and agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France.
On November 20, 1815, the 2nd Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Upon the conclusion of the peace, Wellington was appointed chief of the allied forces in France and remained there until the end of the occupation.
Upon his return to his homeland, Wellington returned to politics. On December 26, 1818, he was appointed General Feldzheichmeister, head of the Board of Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool. The Armaments Chamber was responsible for ammunition, armaments, equipment and war materials for the British Army and Royal Navy. Her area of responsibility also included transport for guns, taking care of coastal fortresses, managing artillery and engineering troops, and issuing military cards. In addition, Wellington became Governor of Plymouth on October 9, 1819.
In 1818 and 1822 he took part in the Aachen and Verona congresses; in 1826 he was sent to Russia to congratulate Emperor Nicholas on his accession to the throne.
In 1827, the Duke became Commander-in-Chief of the British Army (January 22), Constable of the Tower (February 5), and in April a new Field-General-Feldzehmeister was appointed - a colleague in Waterloo, Earl Uxbridge.
Wellington, along with future Prime Minister Robert Peel, was among the increasing influence of the Tory Party. In 1828, he resigned from the post of commander-in-chief and on January 22, became Prime Minister of Great Britain. Robert Peel, who was his long-term ally, becomes Secretary of the Interior (Minister of the Interior).
For the first seven months of his premiership, he did not live in his official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too cramped. Wellington only moved into residence because his home, Apsley House, was in need of extensive renovation and redevelopment. As Prime Minister, he greatly contributed to the founding of King's College. On January 20, 1829, Wellington was appointed Lord Guardian of the Five Ports, a largely ceremonial office. Wellington remained conservative and feared that the anarchy of the French Revolution might spread throughout Europe.
The nickname "The Iron Duke" came about at a time when Wellington was extremely unpopular both as a person and as a politician. In July 1830, with a tinge of disapproval, he was called in the pages of the Irish newspaper "Freeman Journal" for his firm position in politics. In September 1830, Wellington met with a hostile crowd at the opening of the Liverpool-Manchester railway.
The Beer Act 1830 abolished all taxes on it and allowed citizens to open beer pubs(from the English public house, public house) without special permission, without buying a license.
In the summer and autumn of 1830, the country was seized by the uprising of the Luddite peasants who smashed the threshing machines - the peasant movement "Swing". For a long time there was no government that consisted entirely of Whigs and they believed that the key to power would be reforms in response to the demands of the disaffected. Wellington adhered to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, on November 15, 1830, a vote of no confidence in his government was passed in parliament.
The impression made by the French July Revolution and the accession to the English throne of William IV led to the fall of the Wellington government in November 1830.
Wellington retired from active political life in 1846, but remained in the post of commander-in-chief and briefly returned to the spotlight in 1848, helping to rally troops to defend London from the European revolution.
The Conservative Party split over the abolition of the "grain laws" in 1846. Wellington and most of the former government members supported Robert Peel, but most of the Conservative MPs, led by Lord Derby, were in favor of leaving protectionist duties. The parliament canceled the bread laws.
In February 1852, Lord Derby took over the new government. Wellington, 82, by that time very weakly hearing, when reading out in the House of Lords the list of new ministers, most of whom were in the government for the first time, when the new surname was read out, he loudly asked: “Who? Who?" This cabinet of Lord Derby was nicknamed “Government Who? Who?".
On August 31, 1850, Wellington became chief caretaker of Hyde Park and St James's Park. He also remained Commander-in-Chief, Governor of the Tower, Lord Guardian of the Five Ports, and Chancellor of Oxford University (from 1834), as well as Colonel of the 33rd Infantry Regiment (later called the Regiment of the Duke of Wellington) (from 1 February 1806) and Colonel of the Guards Grenadier Regiment (from January 22, 1827).
Kitty, Wellington's wife, died of cancer in 1831. Despite their generally unhappy relationship, Wellington was saddened by her death. He sought solace in a warm relationship with the memoirist Harriet Arbuthnot, the wife of a diplomat, party colleague and friend of Wellington himself, Charles Arbuthnot. Researchers deny that Harriet was the duke's mistress. Harriet's death in a cholera epidemic in 1834 was a big blow to both the duke and her husband. The two widowers spent their final years together at Apsley House.
Keeping aloof from parties, he acted as an intermediary, and Queen Victoria herself consulted his advice in difficult matters. Wellington was not a man of genius, but he possessed an extraordinary mind, a lively sense of duty and, in particular, an unyielding firmness. His former unpopularity was forgotten, and he enjoyed the love and respect of the people when he died.
Wellington died on September 14, 1852, at the age of 83, from the effects of a stroke that ended in a series of epileptic seizures.
Although he hated traveling by rail during his lifetime (after witnessing the death of William Huskisson, who was the victim of the first railroad incident), his body was taken by train to London, where a state funeral was arranged for him. Only a few Britons have received this honor (among them Horatio Nelson) and this was the last heraldic state funeral in Great Britain. They took place on November 18, 1852. At the funeral, there was nowhere for an apple to fall due to the sheer crowd, and Tennyson's extraordinary praise in Ode to the Death of the Duke of Wellington testifies to his highest status at the time of his death. He was placed in a laxulanite sarcophagus (a rare type of granite) in the Cathedral of St. Paul's side next to Lord Nelson.
Wellington's coffin was decorated with flags specially made for the occasion. One of them was Prussian, in the First World War it was removed and not returned later.
After his death, Irish and English newspapers began a dispute over whether Wellington was born Irish or English. During his lifetime, he openly expressed displeasure if he was called Irish.
Wellington's nicknames:
Wellington's most famous nickname - "The Iron Duke" - has more to do with the duke's tough politics than with any particular incident. It was often used as a derogatory word in newspapers. However, it became more common when iron shutters were installed at Apsley House in 1832 (which were said to be able to withstand a musket bullet) to prevent an angry crowd from breaking the glass. The nickname became even more popular after the cartoons in Punch magazine, published in 1844-45.
In addition, Wellington had other nicknames:
His officers called him "The Beau" for his manner of dressing well, or "The Peer" when he became viscount in 1809.
Spanish soldiers nicknamed him "The Eagle" and Portuguese soldiers "Douro Douro" after a successful crossing of this river at Porto in 1809, which ensured victory in the battle. "Beau Douro" Wellington found it amusing when Adolph Frederick, Colonel of the Coldstream Guards, called him that.
"Sepoy General" ("Sepoy General") - so Wellesley nicknamed Napoleon, wanting to hurt him for his service in India and make him an unworthy enemy. This nickname was used in the official French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel for propaganda purposes.
The Beef - There is a theory that Wellington's beef has something to do with the Duke, but not everyone agrees.
Also, in English, rubber boots are called Wellington's. Wellington is believed to have originally proposed calfskin cavalry boots instead of over the knee boots, with a longer shaft in front, which better protect the vulnerable shins of riders from bullets.
WELLINGTON ARTHUR WEELSLEY
English Field Marshal General. Duke.
Arthur Wellesley Wellington was born in Dublin, Ireland, into a noble but impoverished family. Son of Lord Garrett Colley, Earl of Mornington. He was brought up in aristocratic Eton, after which he chose a military career for himself. Graduated from the Angersk military school. He entered the royal military service in 1787, becoming an officer in an infantry regiment.
Wellington advanced rapidly in service - by the age of 25 he was already a lieutenant colonel and commander of the 33rd Infantry Regiment. He received his baptism of fire in 1794 while participating in hostilities against the troops of Republican France in the Netherlands. When British troops left the territory of this country in the fall of the same year, Wellington commanded the rearguard and managed to ensure the British had an unhindered retreat.
In 1796-1805, Arthur Wellesley Wellington served in India, where he arrived with his infantry regiment. The Governor-General of India at that time was his brother Richard, who provided him with brilliant patronage. Wellington commanded the British forces in the conquest of the principality of Mysore and the Marathi principalities, which offered long and stubborn resistance.
In India, Arthur Wellesley Wellington scored his first victories. In 1799, he defeated Sultan Misora and distinguished himself in the assault on the city of Seringapatama. Four years later, with a detachment of 7 thousand people with 22 guns, he inflicted a complete defeat on the Maratha army of 40 thousand soldiers with a large number of long-obsolete guns. Wellington's troops captured the large Indian cities of Pune and Ahmadnagar, which stood at the crossroads of strategically important roads.
In India, General Wellington has a reputation as a resolute and capable military leader, a skillful administrator. It is no coincidence that after the capture of the city of Seringapatama, he was appointed its governor, to whom the whole region was subordinate.
Upon his return to England, Arthur Wellesley Wellington was solemnly knighted by the British crown, and in 1806 he was elected to the Parliament of Great Britain. For the next two years, he served as Secretary of State for Ireland.
In 1807, during a short-term military conflict between Great Britain and Denmark, General Arthur Wellesley Wellington commanded British troops in the battle of Kyoga and on August 29 won a victory that ultimately resolved the conflict between the two European countries - Copenhagen admitted to being defeated.
From 1810 to 1813, Wellington commanded the Allied forces in the Iberian Peninsula against the Napoleonic army that invaded Portugal from Spanish territory. He arrived in Portugal with the rank of Lieutenant General and at the head of the 5,000th British Expeditionary Force.
Thanks to the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force, the French siege of the city of Cadiz was lifted. The city became the temporary capital of Spain. In the winter of 1810, the British erected field fortifications north of the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, about 50 kilometers long - from the Tagus River (Tagus) to the Atlantic coast, which were equipped with several hundred guns.
French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte decided to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Now, two of his armies of approximately equal numbers acted on this territory - 65 thousand people each. The Portuguese army was commanded by one of the best Napoleonic commanders, Marshal Andre Massena, and the Andalusian - by Marshal Nicola Soult. The British commander had an army of 32,000, which consisted of 18,000 British and 14,000 Portuguese allies.
Marshal Massena launched an offensive against Portugal. On September 27, the Battle of Bussaco took place, in which the British army retreating to the Atlantic coast repelled all French attacks. Lieutenant General Arthur Wellington withdrew his troops to the fortified line Torres - Vedras (or otherwise Torij - Vedriz). Marshal André Massena, who had approached her, soon also withdrew his army back, since it began to experience great difficulties with the supply of provisions and was met with openly hostile attitude of the local population.
During the harsh winter of 1810-1811, the so-called border war was waged. Both sides sought to establish control over the mountain passes of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. British troops blockaded the city of Almeide, and Marshal Massena moved to the rescue of the French garrison. On May 5, 1811, the Battle of Fuente de Onoro took place. The British infantry squares successfully repelled the attacks of the enemy cavalry, and the battle did not give the desired result to either side, although the losses of the French were greater.
The battles in Portugal and Spain went on with varying success: victories alternated with defeats. Spanish partisan detachments provided enormous assistance to the allied forces, since a popular war broke out in this country against the army of Napoleon Bonaparte. In Spain, the French were under siege.
In the Iberian Peninsula, Wellington has won several big victories. Among them - the defeat of the French marshal Eugene at Vimieira, the capture of the Portuguese city of Oporto in the north of this country, forcing the troops of one of the best Napoleonic marshals Soult to retreat, capturing the fortress city of Badajoz and forcing the enemy to retreat to Madrid. There were also victories over the French troops at Talavera de la Reina, Salamanca (where he defeated the army of Marshal Marmont). On August 12, 1812, Wellington's army took the Spanish capital Madrid, where it captured 180 guns as booty.
On June 21, 1813, the Battle of Vittoria took place. With 90 thousand soldiers and 90 guns under his command, Arthur Wellesley Wellington decisively attacked the positions of the French army of King Joseph Bonaparte with four columns. They attacked at such a distance from each other that they could provide mutual support in the attack. During the battle, the center of the enemy position was defeated, and its flanks retreated. After Wellington's left column reached the Bayonne road, the French wavered and fled to Pamplona.
The Battle of Vittoria proved to be decisive in the War of the Pyrenees. The French army of King Joseph Bonaparte lost 7 thousand people and 143 guns, the winners got the royal treasury (5 million pounds) and a significant amount of ammunition. From Vittoria Wellington began pursuing the enemy army, pushing it towards the Pyrenees. The last battles on Spanish territory took place at Sororen and near the city of San Sebastian. The British won victories in them.
The remnants of the French troops left the Iberian Peninsula. The British Royal Army in November 1813, crossing the Bidasoa River, entered the territory of France. At Orthez, Wellington's troops fought the French, commanded by Marshal Nicola Soult, after which the defeated retreated to the city of Toulouse. On April 10, 1814, Wellington's troops launched an assault on Toulouse and knocked out the enemy, who lost 6.7 thousand people, while the British losses amounted to 4 thousand people.
The news of the conclusion of peace in Paris and the abdication of Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte was received by the royal commander Arthur Wellesley in Toulouse, which was already occupied by his troops. As a result, he concluded a truce with Marshal Soult, and on that the anti-Napoleonic war in the south of France ended.
For the victory in the Battle of Vittoria, General Arthur Wellesley Wellington was promoted to field marshal general.
During the hostilities in Portugal and Spain, Wellington skillfully switched from defense to attack and used scorched earth tactics against the French, since he could count on the help of the Spanish partisans. He always remembered that the manpower and ammunition of the British Expeditionary Force was limited, so he tried in every possible way to avoid large casualties.
Wellington planned operations well and sent his troops forward with great caution, seeking to anticipate the actions of the French commanders. Local partisans supplied him with information about the enemy, his actions and movement.
Through scorched earth tactics in the Iberian Peninsula, Wellington learned to maneuver his troops well. He often took the French to those Spanish regions where it was difficult for them to find provisions. He himself reliably covered all the ways to the port cities, from where his troops received everything they needed from the British Isles. Napoleonic marshals were deprived of such supplies and the ability to receive reinforcements.
Wellington's victories in the Pyrenees are due to another important reason. Napoleon, forming the Great Army for the campaign against Russia in 1812, recalled from Spain the most experienced military leaders and selected units - the imperial guard and the Polish corps.
Field Marshal Wellington returned to London in triumph. In commemoration of his merits, he was awarded the title of Duke and allocated 300 thousand pounds sterling for the purchase of the estate. In England he was nicknamed the "Winner of Europe".
Arthur Wellesley Wellington was destined to once again become famous in the war against Napoleonic France. But only this time he had to fight not with her marshals, but against the French emperor himself. The Napoleonic "Hundred Days" became the pinnacle of his military glory for Field Marshal General Duke of Wellington.
When Napoleon Bonaparte from the island of Elba returned to France and took possession of Paris, Field Marshal Wellington was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied Anglo-Dutch army of 95 thousand people. She concentrated in Belgium, where there was another allied army - the 124-thousand-strong Prussian army under the command of Field Marshal Blucher.
In the north of France and Belgium, hostilities began again. Only this time Napoleon no longer had such a huge and experienced army, and next to him were not many of his marshals. The decisive battle of the opponents took place on June 18, 1815 at Waterloo in central Belgium. Wellington, together with the approaching Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher, inflicted a complete defeat on the Napoleonic army. The "Winner of Europe" fulfilled the parting words of the Russian Emperor Alexander I: "You have to save the world."
The battle was initially not in favor of the allies. At noon, Napoleon, with an army of 72,000 under his command, was the first to attack the 67,000 army of the Duke of Wellington. At first, the French pushed the British along the entire front. When the French cavalry, led by Marshal Nei, fearlessly attacked the British infantry, which had lined up in squares, Napoleon did not support it with an attack from his imperial guard, which was in reserve. Thus, the moment for the defeat of the center of the allied Anglo-Dutch army was lost.
The troops of Field Marshal Blucher appeared on the battlefield at Waterloo in the midst of the battle. General Georges Lobo's French corps attacked the Prussians. Napoleon made his last attempts to break through the center of the Anglo-Dutch army, but with the appearance of the main forces of Blucher's army, he sent a reserve imperial guard against the Prussians. But the one, deprived of cavalry support, was unable to develop the attack that had begun with success. The retreat of the Napoleonic Guard, which suffered heavy losses from cannon fire, from the position of the Prussian army became for Field Marshal Wellington the signal to start a counter-offensive by all means. Napoleon's army began to retreat hastily, and then fled.
In the battle of Waterloo, the parties suffered heavy losses: the British and the Dutch - 15 thousand people, the Prussians - 7 thousand, the French - 32 thousand people, including 7 thousand prisoners.
After the victory at Waterloo, the allied armies invaded the already defeated France and again occupied its capital Paris, from where the finally defeated Napoleon fled to the seaside city of Rochefort. The French Chamber of Deputies issues an ultimatum to the Emperor Napoleon: abdicate or be deposed. He surrendered to the British and on board the royal brig "Bellerophon" went into exile to the small rocky island of St. Helena, lost in the South Atlantic, where he was to spend the last days of his life and die in 1821. On November 20, 1815, the Second Paris Peace was concluded, which finally drew a line under the anti-French wars throughout Europe. Defeated France returned to the borders of 1790 and pledged to pay a huge indemnity to the winning countries. Field Marshal Wellington remained commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in France until the end of its occupation.
The victory at the Battle of Waterloo brought new honors and awards to Arthur Wellesley Wellington. So, in 1815, he received the title of Russian Field Marshal, and for successful actions against the French in the war of 1814 he was awarded the highest military award of the Russian Empire - the Order of St. George, 1st degree.
The famous English commander was involved in various state affairs. The "Iron Duke" took part in the work of the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, when the European monarchs divided the huge Napoleonic empire among themselves. Represented Great Britain at the Holy Alliance conventions in 1813 in Aachen and in 1822 in Verona. He was sent to Russia to congratulate Emperor Nicholas I on his accession to the throne.
From 1827 until the end of his life, Wellington remained commander-in-chief of the royal army. At the same time, in 1828-1830, he served as Prime Minister of Great Britain. In 1834-1835 he was acting foreign minister, and in 1841-1846 he was a member of the British government with the rank of minister without portfolio.
Duke Arthur Wellesley of Wellington had many other public duties in the latter years of his life. Concurrently with the post of commander-in-chief of the royal army, he served as Governor of the Tower, Lord Guardian of the Five Harbors and Chancellor of Oxford University, then the leading aristocratic institution of higher education.
Wellington was known as an accomplished diplomat. He tried to stay away from political parties fighting each other, but he was always ready to act as a mediator between them. The Queen of England herself turned to him more than once for advice.
Contemporaries and researchers note that Wellington was distinguished by an outstanding intelligence, a high consciousness of military and civic duty to England, and in matters of public policy, he was extremely reactionary, he was an ardent supporter of cane discipline in the army and strict class selection in the officer corps of the British armed forces.
For Britain, Duke Arthur Wellesley of Wellington has become a national hero. When he died, he was buried with truly royal honors in St. Paul's Cathedral.
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ARTHUR WEELSLEY WELLINGTON
"ARTHUR WELLESLEY WELLINGTON"
English commander and statesman.
Sir Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, belonged to the old noble family, also known as the Colley, and only towards the end of the 18th century took the final name Wellesley. More correctly, the surname of Sir Arthur, bestowed on him with the rank of lord, sounds like Wellington, but we will stick to the spelling adopted in Russian military history.
Under King Henry VIII, representatives of this family moved from England to Ireland. In 1728, Sir Garrett, who remained childless, recognized his cousin Richard Colley as his heir, and it was with him that a new branch in the history of the family began. So, in 1746, Richard Wellesley (Colley's surname changed) became an Irish peer with the title of Baron Mornington, and his son in 1760 was elevated to the earldom. The children of the first Earl of Mornington left a noticeable mark in the history of England. The eldest son, Richard, who was appointed governor-general of India in 1797, managed to significantly expand the English possessions in this country at the expense of the local previously independent states with which he waged active military operations. In 1799 he was given the title of Marquis. Leaving India in 1805, Sir Richard was appointed to a new position, and from 1809 to 1812 he was envoy to Spain. And from 1821 to 1834 (with a short break), he was in Ireland, holding the post of Lord Lieutenant.
The middle brother, Heinrich, served on the diplomatic side and was in the British embassy during the mission to Lille. He then joined his older brother in India, becoming Commissioner at Mizor and Governor at Ouda. Later he was appointed to the post of ambassador in Madrid, Vienna and Paris.
But the most famous was the third son of the first Earl of Mornington, Arthur Wellesley, who was born in Dublin on April 30, 1769. Arthur received his education at an elite school in Eton, and then graduated from a military school in Angers (France).
In 1787, his military service began - he entered the British army with the rank of ensign. In 1793, Arthur Wellesley acquired a patent for the rank of staff officer (lieutenant colonel) in the 33rd Infantry Regiment, with which he participated in the campaign in the Netherlands in 1794. From 1790 to 1796 Sir Arthur was a member of the Irish Parliament.
Fate decreed that all three brothers were associated with India. In 1796 Wellesley's regiment, by that time already a colonel, was sent to India. Here, in his free time, he studies military history, looks closely at the life and life of ordinary soldiers, gets acquainted with the political history of India. Arthur Wellesley began to conduct active hostilities in 1799, when his brother, who received the post of governor general, began a war with the Sultan of the Mysore principality Tippu Saib. Unofficially, Sir Arthur became a military adviser to his brother, and after the death of the Sultan and the annexation of Mysore to English possessions, he became the civil and military governor of this territory. In 1803 Wellesley first declared himself as a talented military leader during an expedition against the Maratha tribes. He remained in India until 1805, and then returned to England, by that time having risen to the rank of major general.
The following year he was elected to the House of Commons, and in 1807 he was appointed Secretary of State for Ireland in the Portland Ministry. But the armchair work did not appeal to Arthur Wellesley, and after a few months he left the post to join the expedition against Denmark. The expedition was commanded by Lord Cathcart, and Arthur Wellesley himself became a participant in the negotiations for the surrender of Copenhagen.
In July 1808 he was sent to Portugal. Here, at the head of a detachment of 10 thousand people, and began his glory as a commander. His expedition, which was destined to play such an important role, consisted of a small force, allocated by the main group, which launched fruitless attacks on the Scheldt River. This expedition was equipped by the English government mainly in the hope of saving Portugal. Castlereagh, who took on the difficult task of justifying this expedition, was supported by Arthur Wellesley, who stated that if the Portuguese army and militia were reinforced by 20,000 British soldiers, the French would need 100,000 men to capture Portugal - an amount that France would not be able to allocate if Spain will continue to fight. Part of these forces Napoleon would have to transfer from Austria, where at that time was the main theater of military operations. From the point of view of providing indirect assistance to Austria, the expedition did not justify the hopes placed on it. As a barrier to cover Portugal, it also proved to be completely untenable. But as a means of depleting Napoleon's forces, it completely justified itself.
Back in 1808, Arthur Wellesley landed with his troops at Mendigo. After several successful battles with French troops on August 21, he defeated Marshal Junot at Vimeiero, but after that he was forced to surrender the command to the newly arrived senior general Burrard and left for England.
In April 1809 Wellesley was appointed commander-in-chief of the combined Anglo-Portuguese forces. In the same month, he landed in Lisbon with an army of 26,000 men. Because of the Spanish uprising and partly as a result of D. Moore's attack on Burgos and his subsequent retreat to La Coruña, French troops were scattered throughout the peninsula. French commander Ney tried unsuccessfully to conquer Galicia in the northwestern part of the peninsula. South of Ney's troops in the northern part of Portugal, in the Oporto region, Soult operated, whose army was scattered in separate detachments.
"ARTHUR WELLESLEY WELLINGTON"
In the area of Merida was Victor, covering the approaches to Portugal from the south.
Taking advantage of the favorable opportunities of the landing site and taking into account the dispersal of enemy forces, Arthur Wellesley, immediately upon arrival in Spain, moved north against Soult. Although he did not succeed in cutting off, as he had hoped, the separate detachments of Soult located to the south, he still managed to catch him by surprise. Before Soult could concentrate his forces, the English commander violated the disposition of his troops, crossing the river Duero in its upper reaches, and forced Soult to retreat along the difficult path. As a result of Soult's forced retreat through the mountains, his army suffered significant losses not so much from the actions of the British as from exhaustion.
After the defeat of Soult, Victor's troops, which were still inactive in Madrid, were deployed to cover the direct approaches to Madrid. A month later, Arthur Wellesley decided to move there. Moving along this route, he exposed his troops to a blow that could have been inflicted on him by all French armies in Spain. But he nevertheless launched an offensive, with only 23 thousand people. He was supported by the same number of Spanish troops under the command of Cuesta.
At this time, Victor, having made a retreat towards Madrid, secured the support of two other French armies in the area, increasing the number of French troops to 100 thousand people.
Due to the indecisive actions of Cuest and the difficulties that arose with the supply of his troops, Wellesley was not able to drag Victor into the battle. During this time, Victor was reinforced with reinforcements from Madrid, sent by Joseph Bonaparte, Arthur Wellesley began to retreat, but on July 27-28, going into a counterattack, he successfully withstood the onslaught of the French at Talavera, and if Cuesta had not refused to support him, he himself would have gone to counteroffensive. However, at the same time, Soult began to press on the rear of the British from the west. Cut off from the retreat to the west, Wellesley escaped defeat, as he managed to slip south across the Tagus River. Suffering heavy losses, demoralized and exhausted by the retreat, the British troops took refuge beyond the Portuguese border. The lack of food also prevented the French from organizing the pursuit of Wellesley's troops in Portuguese territory. This ended the campaign of 1809, which convinced Sir Arthur Wellesley of the weakness of the regular Spanish troops.
As a reward for his efforts in Spain during the 1809 campaign, Wellesley received from England the dignity of peerage under the name of Lord Wellington (hereinafter we will call him so), the titles of Baron Duro and Viscount Talavera, and from the Portuguese government - the title of Marquis of Viemeyer.
However, the victory at Talavera had such negative strategic consequences for the Allies that Wellington had to retreat, and the British government left it to his discretion to decide on the further presence of British troops in the Iberian Peninsula. "I will stay here," Wellington replied firmly and continued to fight.
Prior to the start of the main military campaign, Wellington was supported by regular Spanish troops operating in their usual style. The Spanish troops were so badly defeated and scattered during the winter campaign that the French, without encountering any resistance from them, took possession of new areas of Spain and also invaded the rich southern province of Andalusia.
At this time, Napoleon took over the leadership of the war in Spain and by the end of February 1810 had concentrated here almost 300 thousand people, suggesting further increase in the number of troops. More than 65 thousand of them were allocated at the disposal of Massena, with the task of ousting the British from Portugal.
Wellington, having included Portuguese troops trained by the British in his army, brought its number to 50 thousand people.
Massena launched an invasion of Portugal from northern Spain, giving Wellington time and space to pursue his strategic plans. Wellington obstructed Massena's advance by destroying food in areas through which Massena was advancing. On September 27-28, 1810, in a bloody battle at Buzaco, Wellington managed to repel all attacks by Massena, but he began to bypass his position and thereby forced Wellington to hastily retreat towards Lisbon. Then Wellington withdrew to the fortified line of Torres - Vedras, which was completely unexpected for Massena.
The Torres-Vedras line was built across the mountainous peninsula between the Tagus River and the coast to cover Lisbon. Unable to break through these lines, Massena stood in front of them for about a month, until famine forced him to retreat 50 kilometers to the Tagus River. Wellington did not pursue him or impose a battle, but limited himself to pinning Masséna's army in a small area, preventing the supply of food to his troops.
Wellington continued to adhere to his strategic plan, despite the possibility of a change in policy in England and the direct threat posed by Soult's advance south through Badajoz in order to lift the blockade ring in which Massena's troops were located. Wellington resisted all attempts by Masséna, who wanted to force him to attack, but in March he was forced to withdraw. When the remnants of Massena's hungry army again crossed the Portuguese border, he lost 25 thousand people, of which only 2 thousand people in battle.
In the future, Wellington influenced the enemy with more threats than force.
"ARTHUR WELLESLEY WELLINGTON"
In these cases, the French were forced to send their troops to the threatened point and thereby gave the Spanish partisans more freedom of action in the areas left by the French troops.
But Wellington's actions did not stop there. Following the retreating Massena to Salamanca, he used part of his army to blockade the frontier fortress of Almeida in the north, while directing Beresford to besiege Badajoz in the south. As a result, Wellington's army lost its mobility and was divided into two almost equal parts.
At this time, Massena, having again gathered his army and received small reinforcements, hastened to help the besieged Almeis. At Fuente de Honoro, Wellington was caught off guard in disadvantageous positions, found himself in a difficult position and with difficulty repulsed the enemy's attack.
Beresford also lifted the siege of Badajoz and advanced to meet Soult's army, which was hurrying to the aid of the besieged. He was defeated at Albuera as a result of poor organization of the battle, but the situation was saved, albeit at an excessively high cost, thanks to the skillful actions of the troops.
Wellington now focused his efforts on the siege of Badajoz again, although he had no siege weapons at his disposal. However, the siege had to be lifted, since Marmont, who replaced Massena, moved in a southerly direction to join Soult. Both French generals drew up a plan for a general offensive against Wellington. But disagreements arose between them. At the same time, Soult, alarmed by the outbreak of a new partisan war in Andalusia, returned there with part of his army, entrusting the command of the remaining troops to Marmont. Due to Marmont's excessive caution, the military campaign of 1811 gradually died down.
Due to the limitedness of his forces, Wellington could not use them as he would like, and although in absolute terms his losses were less than those of the French, they were relatively greater. However, he withstood the onslaught of the French during the most critical period, and from September 1811 the best of the French troops were withdrawn from Spain to take part in the campaign against Russia. Compared to 1810, the number of French troops in Spain decreased by 70 thousand people. Of the troops remaining in Spain, at least 90 thousand were scattered from Tarragona (on the Mediterranean coast) to Oviedo (on the Atlantic coast) to protect communications with France from partisan attacks. Before concentrating his forces against Portugal, Napoleon decided to first completely conquer Valencia and Andalusia.
In the presence of weak opposition from the enemy, Wellington took advantage of his freedom of action and, suddenly attacking Ciudad Rodrigo, stormed it. A detachment under the command of Gill covered the strategic flank and rear of Wellington during the assault. Marmont could neither stop Gill nor recapture the fortress, since his siege park was also captured. Nor was he able to follow Wellington through a food-deprived country.
Taking advantage of this, Wellington slipped south and took Badajoz by storm, although he had very little time to prepare the assault. In Badajoz, Wellington took over the pontoon park. By destroying the pontoon bridge built by the French over the Tagus River in the Alumaraz area, he achieved a certain strategic advantage, since now the armies of Marmont and Soult were cut off from each other and could only cross the river by the bridge in Toledo, at a distance of about 500 kilometers from the mouth of the Salamanca River.
Soult was firmly attached to Andalusia, because he felt an urgent need for food and feared the Spanish partisans. This allowed Wellington to concentrate two-thirds of his troops for an attack on Marmont in Salamanca. But Marmont was able to unravel Wellington's plan and withdrew to his bases and sources of reinforcements. After that, Marmont cut Wellington's communications without worrying about his communications, which he actually did not have.
Both armies moved in parallel, at times at a distance of several hundred meters from each other, trying to seize a favorable moment to strike. On July 22, Marmont allowed his left wing to be too far apart from the right, which Wellington was quick to take advantage of, inflicting a quick blow on the formed left wing. The French were defeated before reinforcements arrived.
Wellington, however, did not achieve a decisive defeat for the French in the battle of Salamanca, and his troops in the Iberian Peninsula were still significantly weaker than the French. The pursuit of the French would put Wellington's troops in a dangerous position, since King Joseph could at any moment come out of Madrid to the rear of Wellington and cut off his communications. Therefore, Wellington decided to move to Madrid, counting on the moral and political significance of this step. As soon as he entered the capital on August 12, 1812, King Joseph disgracefully fled. But Wellington's stay in Madrid could not last long if the French pulled up their troops here, scattered throughout Spain.
Wellington, without pressure from the enemy, left Madrid and headed for Burgos, threatening the lines of communication with France. But the French power supply system, at the expense of local resources, deprived this threat of real significance. However, Wellington's successes in and after Salamanca forced the French to abandon their plans in Spain to concentrate all their forces against Wellington.
He managed to retreat in time and, after joining with Gill, give the French a new battle at Salamanca, on the terrain of his own choosing. Then he again withdrew to Ciudad Rodrigo, thereby ending the 1812 campaign in Spain.
Wellington's actions in this campaign were marked first by the title of Earl, then Marquis. Parliament twice appointed him a reward of 100 thousand pounds, and the Spanish Cortes presented him with the title of Grand, Marquis of Torres of Vedras and Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo.
Despite the fact that Wellington again returned to the Portuguese border, the outcome of the future campaign was already decided, since the French left most of the occupied territory of Spain in order to concentrate their troops against Wellington, and, leaving the Spanish partisans alone, lost the opportunity to destroy their forces.
In connection with the defeat of Napoleon in Russia, an even larger number of French troops were withdrawn from Spain. By the beginning of the new campaign, the situation in Spain had completely changed.
Wellington became commander-in-chief not only of the British and Portuguese, but also of the Spanish troops.
The French, more demoralized by continuous guerrilla warfare than by military defeats, were almost immediately forced to retreat across the Ebro River and tried only to keep the northern part of Spain. But even such a task they could not accomplish due to the continuous pressure of the partisans on their rear from the Bay of Biscay and the Pyrenees. This forced the French to withdraw from the front four divisions from their limited forces to organize a resistance.
Taking advantage of this, Wellington won a brilliant victory at Vittoria over King Joseph on June 21, 1813, for which he received the title of Field Marshal of the British Army, from the Spanish Cortes - an estate, and from the Prince Regent of Portugal - the title of Duke Vittoria. The victory won allowed Wellington to begin a gradual advance towards the Pyrenees. Having crossed them in February 1814, he crossed the Adour River, occupied Bordeaux and, having displaced Soult from the Torb position, on April 10-12, after the battle, captured Toulouse.
The abdication of Napoleon put an end to the hostilities. The English prince-regent bestowed the Order of the Garter and the title of Duke on Wellington, and the Parliament gave him £ 400,000 to buy the estate.
After that, Wellington was sent to Paris as ambassador extraordinary, and in February 1815 acted as commissioner at the Vienna Congress.
After Napoleon's disembarkation at Grenoble, Wellington went to Brussels and here took command over the allied British, Hanoverian, Dutch and Brunswick troops.
On June 18, 1815, thanks to the energy and composure that never left the Iron Duke, Wellington repelled, albeit with heavy losses, desperate French attacks at Waterloo and with the arrival of Blücher's Prussian troops defeated Napoleon. Together with Blucher, Wellington non-stop pursued the French troops to Paris, which he entered on 5 July.
For Waterloo Wellington has been showered with awards. He was awarded the rank of field marshal of the Russian, Prussian, Austrian and Dutch troops. Emperor Alexander I awarded Wellington with the Order of St. George, 1st Class, the King of the Netherlands with the title of Prince of Waterloo, and other monarchs with precious gifts.
By an allied treaty on November 20, 1815, Wellington was entrusted with command of all the allied forces assigned to occupy France. In this post, Wellington retained his characteristic dispassionate course of action and generally refrained from interfering in politics. Nevertheless, he opposed Blucher's proposal to shoot Napoleon and, in agreement with Emperor Alexander I, prevented the dismemberment of France and the prolonged occupation of its territory, which the Prussians were so desperate for. Despite this, Wellington's order to return to their places the works of art captured by the French during the Napoleonic wars caused such discontent against him in Paris that several attempts were made on his life. At the Aachen Congress of 1818, Wellington raised the issue of the withdrawal of the occupying forces from France and contributed to a favorable settlement of the issue of indemnity for her.
In 1826 Wellington headed an extraordinary embassy to congratulate Emperor Nicholas I on his accession to the throne. The following year, he became Commander-in-Chief of the British Army.
In January 1828, Wellington was commissioned to draw up a ministry. According to his political convictions, he belonged to the extreme Tories, and when, in 1830, under the influence of the July Revolution in England, aspirations to reform the electoral law arose in England, Wellington, as a vivid opponent of this bill, had to cede power to the Whigs. Public opinion was so strongly agitated against Wellington that the London mob broke the windows in his palace. However, this attitude towards him lasted only a short time. In the future, he twice (1834-1835 and 1841-1846) was part of the Ministry of Biel. His political career ended only in 1846.
From then until his death in 1852, in the rank of commander-in-chief, he was engaged only in the army and was content with his military glory, which to this day is the national pride of the British. During his lifetime, Wellington was erected several monuments.
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