School Encyclopedia. Geography of Afghanistan: relief, climate, nature, population What borders afghanistan

Authors: E. V. Baranchikov (General information), V. V. Maklakov (State system), A. I. Voropaev (Nature: physical and geographical sketch, Economy), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and useful fossils), V. G. Korgun, T. K. Karaev (Historical essay), V. S. Nechaev (Health), A. L. Simakova (Education), A. S. Gerasimova (Literature), V. N. Yunusova (Music), K. E. Razlogov (Cinema)Authors: E. V. Baranchikov (General information), V. V. Maklakov (State system), A. I. Voropaev (Nature: physical and geographical essay, Economy); >>

AFGHANISTAN, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

General information

A. is a state in Southwest Asia. It borders in the north with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, in the east with China and India, in the southeast and south with Pakistan, in the west with Iran. The area is 645.7 thousand km 2. Population 27.1 million people (2015, estimate). The capital is Kabul. The official languages ​​are Pashto and Dari. The monetary unit is the afghani. Administrative-territorial division: 34 wilayats (provinces) (Table 1).

Table 1. Administrative-territorial division (2015)

Vilayat	Area, thousand km 2	Population, thousand people	Administrative center
Baghlan	21,1	910,8	Puli Khumri
Badakhshan	44,1	951,0	Faizabad
badgis	20,6	496,0	Kalai-Nau
Balkh	17,2	1325,7	Mazar-i-Sharif
Bamiyan	14,2	447,2	Bamiyan
Wardak	8,9	596,3	Maidanshahr
Ghazni	22,9	1228,8	Ghazni
Herat	54,8	1890,2	Herat
Helmand	58,6	924,7	Lashkargah
Gore	36,5	690,3	Chaghcharan
Daykundi	8,1	424,3	Nili
Jowzjan	11,8	540,3	shibirgan
Zabul	17,3	304,1	Kalat
Kabul	4,5	4373,0	Kabul
Kandahar	54,0	1226,6	Kandahar
Kapisa	1,8	441,0	Mahmoud Raki
Kunar	4,9	450,7	Asadabad
Kunduz	8,0	1010,0	Kunduz
Lagman	3,8	445,6	Mehtarlam
Logar	3,9	393,0	Pulialam
Nangarhar	7,7	1517,4	Jalalabad
Nimruz	41,0	165,0	Zaranj
Nuristan	9,2	148,0	Parun
Paktika	19,5	434,7	Sharan
Paktia	6,4	552,0	Gardez
Panjshir	3,6	153,5	Bazarak
Parwan	6,0	664,5	Charikar
Samangan	11,3	387,9	Samangan (Aybak)
Sari Pul	16,0	559,6	Sari Pul
Takhar	12,3	983,3	Talukan
Uruzgan	22,7	386,8	Tarinkot
farah	48,5	507,4	farah
Faryab	20,3	998,1	Maiman
Host	4,2	574,6	Host

A. - member of the UN (1946), IMF (1955), IBRD (1955), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO; 1992); observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO; 2012), CSTO (2013).

Political system

A. is a unitary state. The constitution was adopted on 16.1.2004. The form of government is a presidential republic.

The head of state and executive power is the president, elected for 5 years by direct elections (with the right of one re-election). The president has two vice presidents. Only a Muslim by religion, born of Afghan parents, can be president. The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Its powers include the implementation of national policy, subject to approval by the National Assembly; appointment of ministers, director of the central bank, judges of the Supreme Court, prosecutor general, etc.

Legislative power belongs to the National Assembly, which consists of two chambers: the lower - the People's Chamber (Valesi Zhyurga) and the upper - the House of Elders (Meshrano Zhyurga). The People's Chamber (250 deputies) is elected by direct voting under the proportional system for 5 years; at least 64 deputies (2 from each province) must be women. The House of Elders includes an indefinite number of members (appointed by local officials, provincial and district councils, and the president). The House of Elders reviews laws, the country's budget, and international treaties after they are approved by the House of the People.

Executive power is exercised by the government - the cabinet of ministers (27 members appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly).

Nature

Relief

Azerbaijan is located in the northeast of the Iranian Highlands. The mountains cover approx. 3/4 of the country's territory (see map of Afghanistan). In the northeast, the ranges of the Hindu Kush mountain system stretch. The highest is the eastern part of the Hindu Kush with peaks above 6000 m [altitude up to 6843 m, Mount Tirgaran, according to other sources up to 7485 m; Mount Noushak (Noshak, Naushak) - the highest point of the country] and passes at an altitude of 3500–4600 m (the most important are Salang, Barogil, Khavak). Alpine ridges with narrow ridges, steep slopes, deep valleys and midlands with smoothed peaks and soft outlines are typical. Increased seismicity is characteristic, avalanches, screes and rockfalls often occur, and mudflows occur in the valleys. South of the Hindu Kush are Central Afghan mountains(Hazarajat), fan-shaped diverging to the southwest. In the northwest - the Paropamiz mountain system, consisting of a number of folded latitudinally elongated chains: the Bandi-Turkestan mountains (up to 3485 m), the Safedkokh axial ridge (Ferozkokh, up to 3371 m) and the Siakhkokh mountains, separated by river valleys. The foothills, covered by loess, pass in the north into Bactrian plain. Closer to the Amudarya valley, loess deposits are replaced by sands.

In the southeast is the Ghazni-Kandahar plateau (up to 3265 m high, Mount Khumbur-Khule-Gar), crossed by wide river valleys. The southern and southwestern parts are occupied by hilly plateaus up to 1200 m high with the clay-gravelly Dashti-Margo desert and the sandy Registan and Garmser deserts with loose dunes. Near the border with Pakistan there is a depression with a drying salt lake Gaudi-Zira, on the border with Iran there is a large Sistan basin, in which the deltas of the Helmand and other rivers flowing from the surrounding mountains are located. The lowest part of the depression is occupied by the fresh end lake Khamun. In the south - the Chagai Mountains (height 1729 m).

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of A. is mainly located within Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The northern part belongs to the southern margin of the young Turan platform (plate), deformed in the Oligocene - Quaternary due to the collision (collision) of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian lithospheric plates. The platform has a Paleozoic granite metamorphic basement and a Jurassic-Eocene sedimentary cover. Its southern part - the Bandi-Turkestan ridge - was drawn into uplifts, and the northern part - into subsidence with the formation of the Afghan-Tajik intermountain depression, filled with powerful Oligocene-Quaternary molasses. To the south of the Harirud (Main Hindu Kush) fault - in the narrow Bandi-Bayan zone - strongly dislocated Paleozoic formations can still be traced. To the south, the Farahrud zone stands out, on the site of which, starting from the Triassic, a branch of the Tethys oceanic basin existed. Fragments of its crust (ophiolites) and sedimentary fulfillment (Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic shales and Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous flysch) are developed. The strata are intensively deformed and intruded by granites. Southeast is the Central Afghan median massif (in the past - microcontinent in Tethys) with a heterogeneous Precambrian basement and a Phanerozoic cover. The southern part of the massif and the southwestern continuation of the Farakhrud zone are superimposed by the Seistan depression filled with Neogene-Quaternary molasses. To the south of it is the Chagai volcanoplutonic uplift, a link in the Cretaceous volcanic arc that borders the median massif from the east. In the east there is a large Chaman-Mukur submeridional fault ( shift), followed by the Katavaz Paleogene flysch trough and the Kabul Precambrian block. Northern Afghanistan is a highly seismic region. Destructive earthquakes - in 1993, 1998, 2002, 2015.

On the territory of Azerbaijan there are known deposits of oil (Angot), natural combustible gas (Dzharkuduk), and coal (Darayi-Suf). Large deposits of ores of iron (Khadjigek), copper (Ainak, one of the largest in South Asia), and rare metals (Darayi-Pich) have been explored. There are deposits of alluvial gold, ornamental and precious stones (the world's best lapis lazuli - the Sari-Sang deposit, marble onyx, jewelry tourmaline, ruby, emerald), as well as barite, sulfur, talc, magnesite, rock salt and other minerals.

Climate

On the territory of A. subtropical continental, dry climate. Climatic conditions change depending on the height of the terrain, in the mountains also - on the exposure of the slopes. The average air temperatures in January on the plains are from 0 to 8 °C, in the highlands in places below –20 °C (up to a height of 1300–1600 m above zero), in July 24–32 °C and 0–10 °C, respectively. In Kabul (at an altitude of 1791 m), the average temperature in January is -2.3 ° C, in July 25 ° C. In the deserts, 40-50 mm of precipitation falls annually, in the most arid regions in the west and south-west - 50-75 mm, on the plateaus - 200-250 mm, on the windward slopes of the Hindu Kush 400-600 mm, in the southeast of A. , where monsoons from the Indian Ocean penetrate, about 800 mm. The maximum precipitation occurs in winter and spring (except for the southeastern part). At an altitude of 3000–5000 m, the snow cover lasts for 6–8 months. The snow border lies on the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush at an altitude of 4700 m, on the southern slopes - about 5400 m, there are large glaciers on the alpine ridges. The plains are characterized by severe droughts, the frequency of which has increased in recent decades. Dust storms are characteristic of the south of Africa.

Inland waters

Most of the rivers belong to the area of ​​internal flow; the largest of them is the Amu Darya (in the upper reaches - the Pyanj) with tributaries of the Kokcha and Kunduz. 55% of water resources A are concentrated in the Amudarya basin. Other rivers flow into lakes (Helmand, Farah-Rud) or are lost in desert areas (Herirud, Murgab - on the territory of Turkmenistan, Balkh, etc.). The Indian Ocean basin belongs to the Kabul River (a tributary of the Indus). The mountains are characterized by a dense river network, 80% of the river flow is formed in the Hindu Kush, the rivers are fed mainly by melt waters of mountain snows and glaciers. The rivers of the plains are flooded in spring, they become shallow or dry up in summer, their waters are taken for irrigation. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential. There are few lakes; the largest are Navur, Abi-Istadayi-Ghazni, and others. Small desert lakes dry up in summer (salt lakes turn into salt marshes). Groundwater in many areas of Azerbaijan is the main source of irrigation and watering of land, as well as water supply to settlements. Large artesian regions are North Afghan and South Afghan.

Annually renewable water resources - 65.33 km 3 (2011), water availability is low - 823 m 3 per person per year. The annual water intake is 20.28 km3, including 98% for the needs of agriculture, 1% for industry, and 1% for the domestic sector.

Soils, vegetation and wildlife

In the foothills and valleys, gray soils, brown desert-steppe soils and solonchaks are common. On the mountain slopes there are mountain gray soils and gray-brown soils. In the highlands - mountain meadow-steppe and mountain-meadow soils. Large areas are occupied by rocky-gravelly surfaces and sands.

3,500–4,000 species of vascular plants grow on the territory of Azerbaijan. The vegetation is predominantly desert and desert-steppe. Desert shrubs are typical - teresken, astragalus, cushion-shaped acantolimon, wormwood. Ephemeral sedge-bluegrass deserts with an abundance of early flowering ephemera are developed on the northern foothill plains. Above, desert-steppe types of communities with wormwood, bulbous bluegrass, and camel thorn are common. North Africa is an area of ​​the best pastures and arable land. At altitudes of 2000–2500 m, mainly in Paropamiz, there are juniper and pistachio woodlands. In the highlands, formations of upland xerophytes are represented. In the mountainous regions bordering Pakistan, at altitudes of 750–1500 m, steppes alternate with forests of Indian palm, acacia, fig, almond, up to a height of 2200–2400 m - forests of evergreen balut oak and Gerard pine, higher (up to 3500 m) - forests from Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and West Himalayan fir. Thickets of juniper dwarf and rhododendron are common at altitudes of 3500–4000 m, and higher there are alpine and subalpine meadows. Tugai forests in the Amudarya valley. Closed forests occupy 2.1% of the territory, light forests and sparse thickets - 45.2% (2015).

The animal world is diverse. According to various estimates, 137–150 species of mammals, 428–515 species of birds, 92–112 species of reptiles, and 101–139 species of fish live in Azerbaijan. In the deserts and steppes, spotted hyenas, jackals, kulans, gazelles and saiga antelope are common, in the mountains - snow leopard, mountain goats, and argali. Afghan fox, stone marten, wolves are widespread. Wild boar and reed cat are found in tugai thickets. Under the threat of extinction - argali, snow leopard, etc. There are many reptiles (lizards, agamas, snakes, including poisonous ones - gyurza, cobra, efa, muzzle), rodents, insects, including agricultural. pests (locusts), and poisonous arachnids (scorpions, karakurt).

State and environmental protection

The ecological situation is tense. Seventy-five percent of the territory of Azerbaijan is subject to desertification, especially in the northern, western, and southern provinces. Among the main factors of desertification are overgrazing of livestock on scarce semi-desert pastures, plowing of sloping lands and soil degradation. Soils are severely depleted on 16% of the territory as a result of water and wind erosion, loss of fertility, and salinization.

Illegal harvesting and export of timber to Pakistan, collection of timber for fuel by the local population lead to deforestation of mountain slopes and destruction of light forests. The frequency of catastrophic landslides and floods has increased due to spring rains and accelerated snowmelt in the mountains. Uncontrolled hunting and trapping of large animals and birds are widespread.

On the territory of Armenia is the Bandi-Amir National Park, located at the source of the river of the same name and preserving the ecosystems of high-mountainous dry steppes and lakes on the slopes of the Hindu Kush spurs. 2 waterfowl sanctuaries (Abi-Istadayi-Ghazni and Navur) and 2 sanctuaries (Adjar Valley and Greater Pamir). 6 OPTs are occupied by St. 258 thousand hectares. It is planned to create 8 more protected natural areas.

Population

Between 38 and 50% of the population of Afghanistan (2014) are Pashtuns, predominant in the west, south and east of the country. In the south (south of the provinces of Nimruz, Helmand and Kandahar), there are also Western Balochs (over 1%) and Brahuis (over 1%). Tajiks predominate in the north (from 18 to 27%, mainly in the provinces of Herat, Bamiyan, Samangan, Baghlan, Takhar, Badakhshan, Panjshir, Parvan, Kabul), Hazaras (from 8 to 19%, mainly in the provinces of Badghis, Ghor, Daykundi, Uruzgan, Ghazni, Bamiyan, Baghlan), as well as firuzkuhi (4%, in mostly provinces Gor, south of Badghis province and east of Herat province), Uzbeks (from 6 to 9%, mainly provinces of Faryab, Jawzjan, Sari-Pul, Balkh, Samangan, Kunduz, Baghlan, north of Takhar province), Turkmens (2.5%, mainly north of the province of Faryab, Jowzjan, Balkh). Taimen live in the west (2%, west of the provinces of Farah and Herat) and Jemshids (north of the province of Herat), in the northeast - Pamir peoples(east of Badakhshan province) and Nuristani(Province of Nuristan). There are also Persians (3%) and others.

A characteristic feature of the A. population is its young composition (cf. age 18.4 years); St. 41.5% - young people up to 15 years old inclusive, people over 65 years old - 2.6%. In 2015, the population growth of A. was estimated at 2.32%. Birth rate 38.6, death rate 13.9 per 1000 inhabitants. With a high fertility rate (5.33 children per 1 woman), infant mortality is high (115.08 per 1000 live births). The average life expectancy of the population is 50.9 years (men - 49.5, women - 52.3 years). There are 105 women for every 100 men. The average population density is 42.0 people / km 2. The most densely populated east (971.8 people/km 2 in Kabul wilayat) and the north of the country (wilayats adjacent to the Pyanj River), the least deserted south-west (4.0 people/km 2 in Nimruz wilayat). Approx. 28% of the population. The mass migration of rural residents to cities began in the 1960s. in connection with the construction of new roads and accelerated industrial development. Largest cities (thousand people, 2012–13): Kabul 3289, Kandahar 491.2, Herat 436.4, Mazar-i-Sharif 368.1. Afghan conflict 1979–89 and the civil war led to significant migrations both abroad (about 1/3 of the population left the country) and within Azerbaijan (the population of the capital more than doubled between 1985 and 1995). The largest number of refugees settled in Iran and Pakistan (4-6 million people; after a partial return, more than 2 million people remained). Economically active population 8.0 mln. (2013). The structure of the employed (%, 2008–09): agriculture 78.6, services 15.7, industry and construction 5.7. Official unemployment rate 35% (2008). 36% of the population lives below the poverty line (2008–09).

Religion

The absolute majority of the inhabitants are Muslims; of them ok. 80% - Sunnis, approx. 19% are Shiites (2014, estimate). Shiism is distributed mainly among the Hazaras and Tajiks, most of the Afghan Shiites are Imamis. Punjabis and Sindhis living in Kabul and Kandahar practice Sikhism and Hinduism. Christians, including Catholics and representatives of the Armenian Apostolic Church, Jews, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Bahais are few in number.

In pre-Christian times Zoroastrianism and Buddhism were practiced in Armenia. On the territory of A. (in Bamiyan) there were statues of the Buddha, which were a Buddhist shrine included in the list world heritage; in 2001 were destroyed by the Taliban. Christian communities arose in the 3rd-4th centuries. in the western part of present-day Armenia, which was part of the Sassanid state. Nestorianism and Monophysitism became widespread. In the 7th-10th centuries. As a result of the Arab conquests, the majority of the population of Azerbaijan converted to Islam, but Christianity remained on the territory of the state until the 2nd half. 14th c. In the 20th century small communities of Catholics and Protestants (Anglicans, Evangelical Christians, and Seventh-day Adventists) reappeared in Africa. On the territory of Azerbaijan there are large Muslim pilgrimage centers (including one of the alleged burial places in Mazar-i-Sharif Ali ibn Abi Talib).

The current constitution of Azerbaijan (2004) declares Islam the state religion, and at the same time guarantees the followers of other religions the right to practice their rituals within the framework established by law.

Historical outline

Afghanistan in Antiquity and the Middle Ages

According to archaeological data, the northern part of the territory of modern Armenia was inhabited by people in the Paleolithic (Kara-Kamar cave, ca. 40-30 thousand years BC), south. part - in the Bronze Age (4th-2nd millennium BC). In the 1st floor. 1st millennium BC e. development of oasis agriculture.

In the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. On the territory of modern Africa, state formations were formed, the most significant of which was Bactria. In the 6th c. BC e. these lands were included Achaemenid states. In the 4th c. BC e. armies invaded A. from Persia Alexander the Great. After the collapse of his empire, on the territory of modern Armenia, a Greco-Bactrian kingdom, captured to the con. 1 in. BC e. nomadic Kushans (Yuechji), who created their powerful state with a center in the north of Asia. In the era of the Great Kushans (end of the 1st-4th centuries AD, see. Kushan kingdom) developed urban culture and crafts, international trade. Buddhism was proclaimed the state religion. The conquest of part of the territory of Armenia by the Hephthalites and the undermining of the power of the Kushans by the Sassanids led to political fragmentation. Part of the local rulers obeyed Turkic Khaganate, the other part - to the Sassanids. This period was accompanied by the decline of cities and the strengthening of the influence of the dynasties of local landowners.

In the 7th–8th centuries b. part of the territory of Azerbaijan was invaded by the Arabs who brought Islam. Within the Caliphate, this territory was ruled by the dynasties of governors - Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids (since 900). To replace the Arabs in the 10th century. came the Central Asian Turks. One of their leaders Sultan Mahmud created in the 11th century. empire of the Ghaznavids, which included Iran, south of Cf. Asia and northwestern Hindustan. The Ghazni-Kandahar Plateau, as well as the Suleiman Mountains and the Quetta-Pishin Highlands became the main territories for the formation of the Afghan people. The Afghan ethnogenesis also included Bactrians, Sakas, and Hephthalites, and later Indian, Tajik, and possibly Turkic elements. The first mentions of the Afghans (Abghan, Afghan) are found in sources from the 3rd to 6th centuries.

In the 13th century the economic and cultural development of the Afghan lands was stopped by the invasion of the hordes of Genghis Khan, which also led to the formation in the 14-15 centuries. new nationality - the Khazarians. The negative consequences of Mongol expansion were not completely overcome in Azerbaijan and during the Timurid era (late 14th–early 16th centuries), although the collapse of Timur’s empire after his death (1405) did not prevent his successors Shakhrukh and Sultan Hussein Baykar from creating a prosperous state in Khorasan with its capital in Herat. The revival of the economic and cultural life of western Armenia under the Timurids attracted in the 16th century. attention mughal and Safavids: in the 16th–17th centuries. the former held the southeast of Afghanistan in vassalage, while the latter conquered the south and west of present-day Afghan territories. A long struggle against foreign power (including the Roshanite movement) created the preconditions for the unification of the Afghan tribes. In the beginning. 18th century in the course of uprisings against the Great Moghuls and Safavids, an independent Ghilzai principality in Kandahar and the principality of the Abdali tribe in Herat arose. In the 1730s they were conquered by Nadir Shah, but after his death (1747) his state fell apart.

Afghanistan in mid. 18 - beg. 20th century

Oct. 1747 The leaders of the Pashtun tribes elected the commander Ahmad Khan as their leader. under the name Ahmad Shah Durrani he stood at the head of the first independent Afg. state - the Durranian state with its capital in Kandahar. Ahmad Shah annexed Ghazni, Kabul, Peshawar, and then Herat to his possessions. Following this, it included Khorasan, Balochistan (as a vassal possession), Punjab (Punjab; was soon lost), Kashmir and Sindh. Under him, the Durranian state became the largest state in the Middle East, but under the successors of Ahmad Shah (Timur Shah and Zaman Shah), its gradual decentralization began in the course of civil strife. In 1818, the collapse of the state led to the formation of independent possessions - Herat, Kandahar, Kabul and Peshawar principalities. Nevertheless, the experience of the stay of the Afghan tribes in the system of the state of Ahmad Shah created favorable conditions for their subsequent consolidation around the Kabul principality under the leadership of his emir Dost Muhammad (since 1834). The reunification of the Afghan tribes was interrupted by the British colonialists, whose boundaries of possessions were already approaching the Afghan lands. In 1838, under the pretext of ensuring the security of the territories subject to it, the troops of the English East India Company occupied Kandahar and Kabul, thereby starting the first of Anglo-Afghan wars . A powerful popular movement in 1841-42 led to the collapse of the British occupation and forced the British troops to leave A. In the 1850s. Dost Muhammad continued to gather the disparate regions of Afghanistan: he subjugated the northern regions (Afghan Turkestan), annexed Kandahar (1855) and Herat (1863). However, he was forced to simultaneously confirm the rights of the English East India Company to Peshawar and other Afghan regions captured earlier (see. Anglo-Afghan treaties and agreements 1855, 1879, 1893, 1905).

Under the successor of Dost Muhammad, Sher Ali Khan (reigned 1863–66, 1868–79), the regions of the left bank of the Amu Darya and Badakhshan were annexed to the Afghan state. Sher Ali Khan strengthened the central government, enlarged the army, carried out a number of administrative, military and financial reforms. Its transformations were interrupted by the 2nd Anglo-Afghan war, launched by Great Britain in 1878 in the conditions of acute rivalry with Russia in Central Asia. The stubborn resistance of the Afghan tribes forced British politicians to abandon their plans to extend their influence to Afghanistan. Despite the signing of the Gandamak Treaty of 1879, which effectively deprived Afghanistan of its independence, British control over the country remained fragile.

In 1880, the British were forced to recognize the grandson of Dost Muhammad, Emir of Afghanistan - Abdurrahman. Arriving in Afghanistan from Russia, where he was in exile, he was able to gather a tribal militia and extend his power to Kandahar and Herat. After the defeat of the British troops by the ruler of Herat, Muhammad Ayub Khan at Maiwand (1880), they left the country (1881). However, in 1893, Emir Abdurrahman was forced to agree to the annexation of the territories of the eastern Pashtun tribes, previously torn away from Afghanistan, to the British possessions, and to recognize the so-called. the Durand Line as the border between Afghanistan and British India.

During the years of his reign (1880-1901), Emir Abdurrahman consistently pursued a policy of consolidating Afghan lands and strengthening the central government throughout the country. He managed to suppress the uprisings of the Pashtun tribes and the Khazars, occupied Kafiristan, a semi-independent region in the east of Afghanistan, and contributed to the Islamization of the local population (kafirs), recreated the regular Afghan army, streamlined taxation and the administrative apparatus, and improved the communications system. Under Abdurrahman, the territory of Azerbaijan was delimited from the possessions of Russia and Great Britain. Despite the “closure” of Azerbaijan to the outside world, carried out by both Abdurrahman and the British, cities grew in Azerbaijan, the specialization of agriculture increased, the internal market developed, and signs of the Europeanization of public life appeared.

During the reign of Abdurrahman's successor, Emir Khabibullah (1901–19), Armenia still remained isolated in foreign policy. At the same time, the sovereignty of the country was infringed upon by the agreement between Great Britain and Russia (1907) on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Asia, and Tibet. In the beginning. 20th century the creation of secular educational institutions of the European type activated socio-political thought. During these years, an opposition movement of the Young Afghans appeared in Azerbaijan, demanding genuine independence, the adoption of a constitution, and the implementation of reforms. Their inspirer and ideological leader was the educator and publicist Mahmud-bek Tarzi.

During World War I, despite pressure from Germany and its allies, A. strictly adhered to a policy of neutrality.

Afghanistan in the 1920s–60s

After the end of World War I, the positions of national-patriotic circles in Armenia became stronger. Emir's reign Amanullah Khan(1919–29) was marked by the restoration of Afghan independence. During the 3rd Anglo-Afghan War, the British government recognized the sovereignty of the emir over the territory of Afghan (see. Anglo-Afghan treaties 1919, 1921). Having established relations with a number of states, including Great Britain and Soviet Russia (see. Soviet-Afghan treaties and agreements), Amanullah Khan carried out a series of reforms aimed at overcoming the backwardness of the country. In 1923, the first constitution of Armenia was proclaimed, which fixed civil rights and freedoms. The economic reforms of Amanullah (the conversion of taxes into cash, the free sale and purchase of state lands, the expansion of secular education) were aimed at encouraging national entrepreneurship and strengthening the market principle and the role of commodity-money relations in the economic life of Amanullah. societies - tribal khans and Muslim leaders. In con. 1928 - early 1929 conservative opposition in the course of the anti-governments ennogo The uprising achieved the abdication of Amanullah and brought to power the emir Bachai Sakao (ruled under the name of Khabibullah), who canceled all the reforms of his predecessor. Oct. In 1929, the former minister of war in the government of Amanullah, the hero of the war for independence, Mohammed Nadir came to power. He took the name Nadir Shah , the title of king and founded a new dynasty. The constitution proclaimed under him (1931) consolidated the positions of the Muslim clergy in the field of education and law and ensured the participation of the tribal nobility in state affairs. In the 1930s measures were taken to encourage industry and trade: merchant associations (shirkets) were created, and factory production arose. After the assassination of Nadir Shah (November 8, 1933), his son Mohammed was elevated to the throne. Zahir Shah However, real power was seized by his relatives, headed by the brother of Nadir Shah, Prime Minister Muhammad Hashim Khan, who established a despotic regime in Azerbaijan.

Before World War II, the influence of Germany and Italy increased in Azerbaijan, seeking to involve the country in their military plans. The activation of the Nazi agents, who acted in Armenia under the guise of advisers and consultants, posed a threat to Soviet and British interests in the region. In connection with the demand of the governments of the USSR and Great Britain (October 1941), the Afghan leadership stopped the activities of German agents. In World War II A. traditionally adhered to a policy of neutrality.

During the war, Armenia experienced serious economic difficulties due to the disruption of world economic ties. The deterioration of the economic situation caused discontent among the Pashtun tribes, who raised an anti-government uprising. Under these conditions, Prime Minister Hashim Khan resigned in 1946, and the government was headed by another uncle of the king, Mahmud Shah. The new cabinet proclaimed a course towards the liberalization of social and political life. Under him, free parliamentary elections were held (acted in 1949–52).

In con. 1940s - early. 1950s Opposition groups Vish Zalmiyan (Awakened Youth), Vatan (Motherland), and Nida-ye Khalq (Voice of the People) arose in Azerbaijan, demanding the democratization of the political system and the implementation of socioeconomic reforms. The leading role in them was played by small and medium entrepreneurs, the Afghan intelligentsia. The conservative forces of Afghan society (tribal leaders, religious leaders), in the context of the Afghan-Pakistani contradictions (since 1947), preferred to support the king's cousin, Gen.-l. Mohammed Daoud, who led the government from 1953.

The government of M. Daoud (1953–63) proclaimed a policy of “guided economy” in Azerbaijan. During the 1950s and 60s within its framework, state organizations in the field of foreign trade were established, state control was established over industrial enterprises and banks, economic development planning was introduced, and conditions were created for the concentration and centralization of national capital. A significant role in the economic life of A. in the 1950s-1960s. played by the foreign policy of the government of M. Daud, who, after unsuccessful attempts to obtain military and economic assistance from the United States, turned to the USSR. The Soviet-Afghan agreements on economic (1955) and cultural (1960) cooperation made the USSR A.'s leading partner in the outside world. However, in the conditions of the Cold War, the Afghan leadership pursued a policy of non-alignment with military-political blocs and pushed the United States and Western European countries to economic rivalry with Soviet influence in Afghanistan.

M. Daud carried out a number of reforms in the public sphere in Armenia, in particular, he abolished the obligatory wearing of a veil by women. However, the activities of the opposition were brought to naught by forceful measures and were regularly suppressed. In 1963 M. Daud was dismissed. In 1964, a new constitution was adopted in Azerbaijan. On its basis, a gradual liberalization of socio-political life took place (“democratic experiment”): a private press came out, political parties functioned, and elections were held (1965, 1969). In 1965 was established People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan(PDPA), which proclaimed a course towards the construction of socialism. In 1967, it split into two factions - radical ("Khalq") and liberal ("Parcham").

Con. 1960s It was marked by an aggravation of Azerbaijan's domestic political problems and an increasingly clear ideological polarization—from Islamic fundamentalism to extreme leftist views. The problem of political self-determination of the eastern Pashtun tribes living south and southeast of "Durand line" and found themselves after the partition of British India (1947) within Pakistan. The Afghan-Pakistani conflicts, the instability of the composition of governments, the authoritarian political steps of the king led to the beginning. 1970s to a general political crisis, exacerbated by the drought of 1971–72. Under these conditions, a coup d'etat took place in Afghanistan, led by former Prime Minister M. Daud (17.07.1973). The monarchy was abolished and the country declared a republic.

Afghanistan under republican regimes (1973–92)

The coup of M. Daoud was supported by military and civil activists of the PDPA (Parcham faction). A number of its supporters took part in the creation of republican government bodies. However, during the 1970s M. Daud's leadership style became more and more conservative and authoritarian. The regime's gradual abandonment of socialist ideas and the removal of left-wing politicians from government posts were enshrined in a new constitution (adopted in February 1977), which consolidated the almost unlimited power of the president. A noticeable element of Azerbaijan's foreign policy was its estrangement from the USSR. M. Daud stepped up negotiations with Pakistan on the Pashtun problem, and also expanded and strengthened Afghanistan's relations with Iran and the countries of the Persian Gulf, which promised the Afghan government large financial assistance.

In 1977, the forces of the Afghan opposition - "Khalq" and "Parcham" - with the assistance of the USSR, united against the regime of M. Daoud. After a year of political assassinations, anti-government demonstrations, and arrests of the opposition, on 27 April 1978, left-wing army officers brought the PDPA, led by its leader N. M. Taraki, to power (see below). April Revolution 1978). The country was proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). The new regime was actively supported by the Soviet leadership, which soon concluded with A. the Treaty of Friendship, Good Neighborliness and Cooperation (12/5/1978). In 1978–79, the PDPA regime carried out a series of radical socio-economic reforms that undermined the traditional economic foundations of the Afghans, which caused discontent among the general population. The situation in the country was soon aggravated by a new split in the PDPA. The radical extremist faction of the PDPA (“Khalk”), headed by Kh. Amin, relying on military circles, actually removed the liberal wing of the party, Parcham, led by B. Karmal, from power. The policy of mass purges and repressions in the PDPA and in the country as a whole was consistently carried out after the appointment of Kh. Amin to the post of head of government (March 1979). Overthrow and assassination of N. M. Taraki (Sept. 1979 - Oct. 1979) allowed H. Amin to assume key powers in the party and government of Afghanistan. In the summer and autumn of 1979, armed resistance to the PDPA regime took the form of spontaneous mass demonstrations both in Kabul and in the outlying provinces of the country.

Under these conditions, the USSR carried out an armed invasion of Afghanistan (December 25, 1979), the purpose of which was declared to be “assistance to the Afghan people in repulsing external armed aggression” (see paragraph 12). Afghan conflict 1979–1989). H. Amin's regime was liquidated (12/27/1979). B. Karmal was put in power, combining the posts of head of government and general secretary of the PDPA.

In the 1st floor. 1980s attempts by the government of B. Karmal to build “Soviet-style socialism” in Azerbaijan proved unsuccessful. Such a policy was opposed by a broad Islamic opposition, which received support not only b. h. population, but also Western countries led by the United States and its allies in the region. Resistance to the PDPA regime took the form of a large-scale civil war. More than 5 million refugees left the country.

With the advent of the former head of the secret services, A. Najibullah, to the post of general secretary of the PDPA (May 1986), the development of measures for national reconciliation and the liberalization of the socio-political and economic life of the country began. Najibullah was elected President of the Republic of Afghanistan, proclaimed under the new constitution (1987). However, the calls of the PDPA leader for a compromise did not meet with a positive response from the leaders of the resistance, and his reforms could not lead the country out of the military-political impasse. The strengthening of the military-technical potential of the armed opposition, as well as the diplomatic pressure of Western countries and the democratization processes that took place in the USSR, put the Soviet and Afghan leadership in front of the need for negotiations with opponents of the regime. Throughout the 1980s. such negotiations were conducted under the auspices of the UN between the foreign ministers of A. and Pakistan. In con. 1980s A formula for an Afghan settlement was worked out - the withdrawal of Soviet troops in exchange for stopping the supply of weapons to the Mujahideen. The settlement agreement was signed on 14/4/1988, and the withdrawal of Soviet troops was completed on 15/2/1989. In the beginning. 1990s The country's leadership made significant efforts to reach a compromise with the interim Mujahideen government operating in Pakistan. On January 1, 1992, the USSR and the USA stopped supplying weapons to both sides, and in April. 1992 Opposition units occupied Kabul without a fight. The country was proclaimed the Islamic State of Afghanistan. Power passed into the hands of the leaders of the Mujahideen. S. Mojaddidi became president, who was replaced by B. Rabbani in the same year.

Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan

Soon a fierce armed struggle for power broke out in Azerbaijan between the leaders of the Mujahideen. In conditions when the government controlled only the capital region, the warlords divided power in the provinces. In the 1990s the political-administrative disintegration of Azerbaijan intensified. In a number of regions, pockets of regional and even local power arose. Arbitrariness, violence, banditry, interethnic conflicts have become a mass phenomenon. The country's economy was in a state of chaos and stagnation.

All R. 1990s The Taliban (young Islamic radicals trained in Pakistani madrasas) appeared on the political arena of Afghanistan. In 1994, the Taliban captured Kandahar, and in 1996 - Kabul, proclaiming the territory they occupied by the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, headed by Mullah Omar. They were opposed by the Northern Alliance (a coalition of various ethnic forces led by Ahmad Shah Massoud). The Taliban leaders established a strict theocratic regime in the territories they controlled, imposing restrictions on the public and political life within the framework of the “pure Islam” they preached. The usual political practice of the Taliban regime has become a massive violation of human rights, encouragement of the drug business, and the genocide of national minorities. Since 1996, the territory of A. has been used by Osama bin Laden and his organization Al Qaeda as a base for preparing violent actions against the "infidels". In con. 1990s Armenia was actually turned into a hotbed of international terrorist activity.

The assassination of the leader of the anti-Taliban forces, Ahmad Shah Massoud (September 9, 2001) and the terrorist attacks in the United States (September 11, 2001), which U. bin Laden was accused of organizing, caused a sharp anti-Afghan reaction from Western states. As a result of the military operation carried out in con. In 2001, the Taliban regime in Azerbaijan was liquidated by the forces of the anti-terrorist coalition led by the United States. Dec. 2001 At the conference of the leading political forces of Armenia in Bonn, the Provisional Administration of Armenia was formed, headed by Hamid Karzai, which proclaimed the main goal of restoring peace in the country and the creation of a democratic society. In June 2002, at a meeting of the Emergency Loya Jirga, the Transitional Government of Azerbaijan was formed, and H. Karzai was elected head of state and cabinet of ministers. In Jan. In 2004, a new constitution was adopted by A., which proclaimed civil rights and freedoms. Oct. 2004 H. Karzai was elected president of Armenia. More than 3 million refugees have returned to the country, but the process of Azerbaijan's recovery is proceeding extremely slowly. The remnants of the Taliban are conducting an armed struggle against the government of H. Karzai and the forces of the international anti-terrorist coalition. The territory of Azerbaijan is actively used for the production of narcotic drugs with their subsequent export abroad. Power in the provinces actually belongs to the field commanders of the Mujahideen, who are only nominally subordinate to the central government.

As tensions escalated, the presidential elections scheduled for June 2004 were postponed. In March, the command of the American contingent conducted a major anti-terrorist operation with the participation of units of the Afghan army in the areas bordering with Pakistan, which at the same time acted independently. These actions remained fruitless, while the redistribution of spheres of influence continued in the north and west of Armenia: clashes broke out between government troops and the militia of the governor Ismail Khan in Herat; the militia of General A.R. Dostum captured the province of Faryab and clashed with the troops of the governor of the province of Balkh, A.M. Nur. In August, Ismail Khan successfully resisted regular formations sent from Kabul in Shindand. In October, Karzai received 55.4% of the vote in the presidential elections and took office in December. His government set the task of limiting the arbitrariness of regional warlords, building an effective national security system, and continuing reconstruction.

The most important step towards the construction of new armed forces was the implementation of the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) program for former Mujahideen, aimed at simultaneously strengthening the central government in the field. At its 1st stage, by July 2005, over 250 units were disbanded, approx. 63 thousand fighters, more than 30 thousand units of heavy and light weapons were delivered to warehouses. However, more than 1,000 armed gangs continued to operate in the country (according to various estimates, from 60 to 100 thousand members). In June 2005, a decree was promulgated on the start of the 2nd stage of the program (“Disarmament of illegal armed groups”), which was supposed to be completed within a year. By September, the strength of the Afghan National Army (ANA), which was recruited on a voluntary basis and consisted of 5 regional commands and several corps, including separate brigades and battalions, reached 30 thousand people. By the end of the year, approx. 20 thousand military personnel of the so-called. international coalition forces.

The repeatedly postponed parliamentary elections were held in September 2005 and brought the predominance of independents and oppositionists (conservatives, Islamists and traditionalists): the largest factions formed the New A. party. (Yu. Kanuni), "Islamic Society A." (B. Rabbani, Ismail Khan and A. M. Nur), "National Movement A." (A. V. Masud), "National Islamic Movement A." (A. R. Dostum), "Party of Islamic Unity of the People of A." (M. Mohakkek). In December, a close ally of Karzai, S. Mojaddidi, was elected chairman of the upper house, and oppositionist Y. Kanuni, who won the election of the radical Islamist A. R. Sayyaf, was elected chairman of the lower house.

The remnants of the Taliban and al-Qaeda continued with weapons in their hands anti-government attacks from the territory of Pakistan. In the provinces, field commanders held positions, often not subordinate to Kabul. Due to economic instability, the production and trade of drugs increased, political violence and interethnic conflicts continued. The drug business has merged with crime in the form of individual representatives of local authorities and militants. The task of reunifying the country remained no less difficult, given the many confessional contradictions that had aggravated during the war years. The problem of refugees returning from abroad stood apart.

The inability of the Karzai cabinet to cope with these problems prompted the world community to return to the issue of increasing aid to A. and more actively participating in its restoration. At a conference in London (January - February 2006), 70 countries approved the allocation of 10.5 billion US dollars for the "Afghan package" - a 5-year development plan (disarmament of all illegal groups and completion of the construction of a national army; reduction of the area of ​​mined territories by 70 %; creation of an effective judicial system; strengthening the fight against drug trafficking and corruption; expanding the structure of education; solving social issues and fighting poverty; modernizing transport and energy infrastructure).

In the presidential elections of 2014, the favorites among 8 candidates were A. Abdullah, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs (from the National Coalition), and A. Ghani Ahmadzai, ex-Minister of Finance (non-partisan), who received in the 1st round (April 2014) respectively 45 % and 31%. In June, the 2nd round took place, after which a political crisis erupted, as Abdullah demanded a recount, which gave rise to disagreements about which body would carry out this procedure: Ghani Ahmadzai, who supported the idea of ​​​​centralized power, demanded the involvement of the CEC A., Abdullah , who defended the division of powers between the president and the prime minister, advocated the participation of international representatives. As a result of the mediation of ex-president Karzai and US Secretary of State John Kerry and under the auspices of the UN, a compromise was reached, in August the parties signed a Declaration on the joint formation of a government of national unity. According to the results announced in September, A. Ghani Ahmadzai won with 56.4% of the vote and became president; A. Abdullah, who received 43.5% of the vote, took the position of Chairman of the Executive Council.

Since January 2015, after the withdrawal of most of the international coalition forces from Afghanistan, the terrorist activities of the Taliban and the military confrontation between its supporters and government forces have intensified in the country.

economy

A. - one of the poorest countries in the world, heavily dependent on foreign aid and transit trade. The hostilities that have not stopped since 1979 have almost completely destroyed the economy; the consequences of the drought of 1998-2002 also have an effect. The only flourishing industry during the years of war and instability was the production of opium poppy (according to some estimates, it provides up to 1/3 of GDP). In Jan. In 2002, a conference of donor countries for the restoration of Azerbaijan was held in Tokyo (representatives of 61 countries participated, including Russia, the USA and EU countries, as well as the UN, the World Bank, the IMF, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and a number of other organizations), at which a program was developed assistance (4.5 billion dollars until 2006). As a result, there have been some positive trends in the development of the economy, especially in the agricultural sector. For the next few years, two main tasks: to encourage peasants to abandon the cultivation of opium poppy and to explore oil and natural gas deposits in the northern regions of the country.

GDP is $20 billion ($700 per capita; 2003). 60% of GDP is created in agriculture, 20% - in industry, 20% - in the service sector. Azerbaijan's external debt exceeds $8.5 billion (2004), a significant part of it falls on Russia.

Industry

Since 1967, the large gas field Khoja-Gugerdag has been developed, since 1982 - the Dzharkuduk field; both are located in the north of the country (near the town of Shibirgan). In the 1980s gas was mainly exported to the USSR, at the beginning. 21st century completely consumed within the country. Coal is also mined (Darayi-Suf deposit), oil (Angot), rock salt (near the city of Talukan), lapis lazuli (Sari-Sang), and building materials (Table 2).

Table 2. Extraction of the main types of mineral raw materials

Hydropower is the basis of Azerbaijan's energy industry: 84% of all electricity is generated at hydroelectric power plants, and 16% at thermal power plants (2002). The most significant hydroelectric power plants were built on the river. Kabul (Naglu and Surobai) and on the river. Helmand (Kajakay). The largest thermal power plant (running on natural gas) operates in Mazar-i-Sharif.

The creation of a manufacturing industry began in the 1930s: a cotton factory was built in Puli-Khumri, a sugar factory in Baghlan, and a wool-weaving factory in Kandahar. In the five-year plans for economic development (since 1956), emphasis was placed on the development of the public sector in the first place; a bakery, a house-building plant, an asphalt-concrete and car repair plants in Kabul, cement plants in Jabal-us-Siraj and Puli-Khumri, a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Mazar-i-Sharif, etc. were put into operation. 1960s - early. 1970s new enterprises of the food, textile and pharmaceutical industries began to operate. During the war years, most industrial enterprises were destroyed or stopped working. In the beginning. 21st century continue to operate enterprises for the production of fabrics (Kabul, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif), soap and medicines (Kabul), furniture, shoes, miner. fertilizers (Mazar-i-Sharif) and cement (Gori, Jabal-us-Siraj) (Table 3). Hand-made production of carpets is developed (mainly in the north of the country).

Table 3. Production of the most important types of industrial products

Agriculture

The economy of Armenia is traditionally based on agriculture, which is dominated by small peasant farms. The total area of ​​agricultural land, including pastures, is approx. 62% of the country's territory, the share of arable land - 16%. Arable land is mainly occupied by grain crops, which are grown at an altitude of up to 2700 m. Collection (2003; thousand tons) of wheat - 2686, barley - 345, corn - 298. Rice is grown on the plains and in the foothills (388 thousand tons in 2003) . The most fertile plots of land are located in a mosaic: in the north - in the valleys of the tributaries of the Amu Darya, in the east - in the valleys of the Kabul, Logar, Sarobi and Lagman rivers, in the central part - in the Middle Afghan mountains, in the south - in the Helmand vilayat, in the west - in the Herat vilayat . Sugar beets, cotton, oilseeds and sugar cane are also grown. Horticulture (apricots, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, pomegranates, citrus fruits), viticulture, melon growing are developed; grow almonds and walnuts. In the 1980s about half of the arable land was irrigated (there were underground drainage galleries with wells, as well as a system of ditches fed from rivers and underground sources). A significant part of the irrigation facilities were damaged during the hostilities, the cultivation of the fields became dangerous due to mines. In the 1980s–90s. opium poppy became the leading cash crop, A. became the world's main supplier of opium (1670 tons in 1999, estimate).

Animal husbandry, mainly sheep (8.8 million heads, including Karakul breed, in the north of the country) and goats (6 million heads; 2003), is mainly occupied by nomadic tribes. In winter, herds graze on the plains, in summer - on mountain (at an altitude of 1000 to 3500 m) pastures. Also bred (thousand heads; 2003) cattle (zebu and buffalo 2600), donkeys 920, camels 290, horses 104.

Transport and communications

There are practically no railways - 9.6 km long branches have been laid from Kushka (Turkmenistan) to Torgundi and 15 km from Termez (Uzbekistan) to Hairatan (it is planned to be extended to Mazar-i-Sharif). The length of roads is 21 thousand km, including 2.8 thousand km with a hard surface (1999). During the period of hostilities, the condition of roads deteriorated, and practically no repairs were carried out. The use of horse-drawn transport (camels, horses, donkeys) is common. Of particular importance is the ring road Kabul - Kandahar - Herat - Maymene - Mazar-i-Sharif - Khulm - Kabul, which connects the most important cities of the country. The only navigable river is the Amu Darya. The main river ports are Hairatan and Sherkhan. Two oil pipelines have been laid in Azerbaijan: from Turkmenistan to Shindand and from Uzbekistan to Bagram (both are inactive). The length of gas pipelines is 387 km. 10 airfields with paved runways, Kabul International Airport, 5 helicopter airfields (2004).

Foreign economic relations

The total value of A.'s legal exports is $98 million; imports exceeded $1 billion (2002). The main export items are fruits, nuts, carpets, wool, cotton, dressed and undressed animal skins, precious and semi-precious stones. The main buyer countries of goods from Azerbaijan: Pakistan (28.6%), India (27.6%), Finland (6.1%), Belgium (5.1%), Germany (5.1%), Russia (4.1%) and the USA (4.1%). Imported means of production, food, textiles, petroleum products, etc., in the main. from Pakistan (24.3%), South Korea (14%), Japan (9.1%), USA (8.7%), Germany (5.7%) and Kenya (5.6%).

Foreign tourism has been actively developing since con. 1960s before the Afghan conflict of 1979–89 (in 1978 more than 100,000 foreign tourists visited Azerbaijan).

healthcare

Total health spending is 8.2% of GDP (2014). There are 26 doctors per 100 thousand inhabitants (2014), 18 paramedical personnel (by 2010). The incidence of diphtheria was 854 cases, measles - 2486, whooping cough - 1439.

Sport

Since ancient times, equestrian sports, archery, fencing with sticks, pushing stones, etc. have been cultivated and popular in the country. The most developed and popular sports are wrestling, athletics, football, and field hockey.

The National Olympic Committee was created in 1935 and recognized by the IOC in 1936. Athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in Berlin (1936); subsequently participated in all the Olympic Games (with the exception of 1952, 1976, 1984, 1992, 2000). R. Niklai won two bronze Olympic medals (on 1.1.2016) in taekwondo competitions in Beijing (2008, weight category up to 58 kg) and London (2012, up to 68 kg). Athletes A. participated in 13 Asian Games; (as of January 1, 2016) 5 silver and 6 bronze medals were won. The most popular sports are: football, field hockey, volleyball, basketball, boxing, chess, national wrestling - pahlavani. Since 1996, the A. chess team has been participating in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education

The education system of A. was completely destroyed during the years of civil war and the rule of the Taliban. In 2002, an emergency plan for the restoration of the education system "Back to School" was prepared, designed for 2 years. Education is administered by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Main regulatory documents: Law on Education (2008), Law on Higher Education (2013). In 2015, a plan was developed for the development of the education system in Azerbaijan until 2020. The education system includes: 6-year primary, 6-year secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education. Education is free and separate at all levels. Primary education covered approx. 100% children, average - 46.8% (2013; data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics). The literacy rate of the population over 15 is 24.2% (2015). In many regions, the problem of gender equality remained unresolved. According to the Ministry of Education in 2015, out of 11.5 million Afghan children attending school, 4.5 million (42%) were girls.

Secondary vocational education (2-5 years of study) is carried out on the basis of an incomplete secondary school. Post-secondary vocational education programs (grades 13-14) are implemented in vocational colleges, teacher training colleges and Islamic schools. The qualifications they award are generally designed to provide access to the labor market. In the system of higher education, there are: Kabul University (founded in 1932, closed in the 1990s; resumed classes in 2002); state universities: Medical (1932), Polytechnic (1951, current status since 1963), Pedagogical named after Burhanuddin Rabbani (leads history since 1964, current status since 2002), American (2006), National Defense named after Marshal Fahim (2005, current name and status since 2014) - all in Kabul; Nangarhar University (city of Jalalabad, founded in 1963, originally trained medical personnel), Balkh, Herat (1988), Kandahar (1990) universities; Agricultural Science and Technology University (2014, Kandahar Province), as well as universities in Bamiyan, Badakhshan and Khost and other provinces. There are also private universities: Kardan (2003), Bakhtar (2005), Karvan (2008), RANA (2009), Salam (2009) and others. Libraries: Ministry of Education (1920), Department of Press and Information (1931) public - in Kabul (1920) and Herat, etc. National Archives A. (1890). Kabul National Museum (has a history since 1919; closed in the mid-1990s - 2001; reopened in 2004), Herat National Museum (1925), Museum of Islamic Art in Ghazni (1966; restored in 2004 - 07) and others. National Gallery of Art (2003).

media

The media system in Afghanistan, which was practically destroyed during the rule of the Taliban, has been undergoing a process of restoration since 2001. There are (2004) state television, radio broadcasting and a news agency in the country. In addition, there are 3 independent broadcasting companies (including the most influential - "Radio Kabul"), a private television company and a private news agency "Afghan Islamic Press" ("Afghan Islamic Press" ). More than 260 newspapers and other periodicals are published.

Literature

The literature of A. develops in two languages ​​- Pashto and Dari. Pashto literature also exists in part of Pakistan, Dari literature is the heir to the Persian classical literary tradition (see Iran, Literature section). Among the earliest surviving monuments of Pashtun literature is the "Cadastral Book" of Sheikh Mali (15th century). By the 16th century refers creativity Bayezida Ansari, founder of the Roshanite sect. The heyday of classical literature in Pashto falls on the 17th-18th centuries, when 4 main poetic schools were formed: "Roshani" (calling for the struggle against the conquerors and colored by the ideology of Sufism), Khushkhal Khan Khattak(who professed national liberation ideas and used secular forms of poetry), Abdurrahman Momand(developing Sufi themes) and Abdulhamid Momand(characterized by the complexity of artistic images and poetic speech).

In the 19th century In connection with the political consolidation of the peoples of Azerbaijan, a bilingual literature of Azerbaijan was formed in Dari and Pashto (the works of panegyric poets Kabuli Vasiri, Tarshizi Shahab, and A. Faiz Muhammad; epic poets A. Ghulam Muhammad, H. Kashmiri, emir Abdurrahman, and poetess A. Durrani, poets R. Badakhshi, Y. Mukhlis). In the beginning. 20th century modern Armenian literature, connected with enlightenment tendencies, was born (Mahmud-bek Tarzi, G. M. Afgan, Davi Abdulkhadi, and M. Salih). In 1936 Pashto was declared the second official language along with Dari. In 1937 the Afghan Academy of Language and Literature was established. New prose genres are mastered, in particular the story (works by S. M. Alamshahi, Miraminuddin Ansari, G. M. Zhvandai - in Dari; B. Kushkaki and K. M. Rafik - in Pashto).

In literature A. 2nd floor. 20th century social problems prevailed (poetry Ulfata Gul-Pachi and A. Benava, essays by K. Khadim and S. Rishtin, fiction by N. M. Taraki, Muhammaddin Zhvak, Abdullah Bakhtani). Abdulhak Betab, H. Khalili (in Dari), J. G. Jeylani, Sh. Majruh, M. S. Psarlay (in Pashto) remain committed to traditional motifs; modern forms are mastered by S. Laik (in Pashto and Dari), Sh. Barik (in Dari). New directions are being formed in modern prose: the romantic (A. Pazhvak and G. G. Khaybari), and then the realistic (G. H. Faal, F. A. Parvana, N. Khatir, I. Khair, R. Rakhim, A . Khabib, K. Mazhari). After the PDPA regime came to power, the Writers' Union of Azerbaijan was created (1980), and the Zhvandun (Life) magazine became its official organ. By this time, the work of prose writers A. Usman (Kuzagara), A. R. Zaryab, Afganpura Amin, A. Kargara, Z. Anzor, B. Bajaurai, Habib Kadir, I. Atayi. N. Hafiz, N. Takhuri, A. Takor, A. Khazan continued in the poetry of the classical tradition. V. Bakhtari, L. Nazimi, S. K. Tufani, A. Naibi, F. Farda turned to new poetic techniques and genres. The themes of social struggle, revolutionary pathos are characteristic of the poetry of D. Panjsheri.

War of the last quarter of the 20th century. led to the emigration of a significant part of the Afghan writers. Outstanding representatives of Pashtun literature abroad are the novelist S. Shpun, the poets A. Jahani, P. M. Karavan, S. Siddiqi, and M. Parvin Fayzzada.

Architecture and fine arts

The artistic culture of the peoples of ancient and medieval Africa developed in close connection with the cultures of the peoples of Central Asia, India, and Iran. The territory of North Africa, as part of Bactria and Tokharistan, constituted a single historical and cultural region with the southern regions of Central Asia; the territory south of the Hindu Kush was more closely connected with Hindustan. In con. 4th - 3rd millennium BC e. in southern Africa, early agricultural settlements (Mundigak) arose with mud-brick buildings, painted pottery, and clay figurines of animals and women—fertility goddesses; from the 2nd millennium BC e. with the growth of these settlements, defensive walls and monumental structures were erected (a building with closed semi-columns - “corrugations” on the facade in Mundigak).

In the oases of Northern Africa in the 2nd millennium BC. e. settlements were also surrounded by walls and included monumental buildings (“round temple” and “palace” in Dashly-3), decorated with pilasters, in some rooms - with alabaster mosaics with a floral pattern; in settlements and burial grounds, copper and bronze seals with geometric motifs, less often with cut-out images of a winged goddess and animals, metal pins with sculptural tops in the form of a protome (the front part of the figure) of rams and bull heads with a human face, etc. were found. In style, the art of A. 4 - 2nd millennium BC e. included in the area of ​​artistic cultures of the Ancient Near East, but includes elements of the Harappan culture. The Achaemenid period (6th–4th centuries BC) includes monumental structures discovered by archaeologists in the settlements of North Africa (the round “temple” of Kutlug-Tepe, the “summer” and “winter” palaces in Altyn-10), developing the ancient Bactrian tradition, as well as the main part of the products of the so-called. Amu Darya treasure. During the period of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–140 BC), one of the schools of Hellenistic art developed in Northern Armenia (the most significant monuments were found at Ai-Khanoum). The first centuries BC e. - the first centuries A.D. e. rich burials of the leaders of nomadic tribes (Tillya-Tepe, Northern Asia) are dated, where approx. 20 thousand pieces of jewelry (gold, inserts made of turquoise, carnelian, lapis lazuli, etc.), whose pictorial and ornamental forms testify to the assimilation by local craftsmen of the ancient Middle Eastern, Indian, Far Eastern, steppe (see Surkhkotal, associated with the dynastic cult. Numerous monuments of Buddhist religious architecture of the 1st-8th centuries and related works of monumental sculpture, painting, ornamental decoration.Land monasteries (near Balkh, Kunduz, in Hadd), like other buildings, were built from mud and pakhsa, less often from stone, had courtyards with a massive stupa and rooms with beamed or vaulted roofs, from the 3rd-4th centuries domes appeared on tromps... A cave monastery was formed in Bamiyan, in the murals and stucco decoration of which the influence of the art of India and Iran is noticeable.

After the Arab conquests (7th–8th centuries) and the spread of Islam, Armenian art developed in line with the artistic culture of Muslim countries. Among the outstanding monuments of medieval architecture are the Nu-Gumbed domed mosque in Balkh (10th century); palace complex Lashkari Bazaar residences of the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in Bust (11th–12th centuries); star-shaped memorial towers and the palace of Masud III in Ghazni; stepped, round minaret in the village. Jam (between 1153 and 1202); Cathedral Mosque and Musalla Ensemble in Herat.

In the medieval art of Armenia, enriched by constant contacts with the states of Central Asia, Iran, and partly India, distinctive schools developed. The most significant school of decorative and fine arts was formed in Herat (metal processing, carpet weaving, woodcarving, etc.). From the beginning 15th c. the court library-workshop (kitabkhane) worked here, with which the development of Herat school miniatures, works of K. Behzad, his most famous student Qasim Ali and other famous miniaturists, calligraphers and ornamentalists. Subtle color harmony, refined linear drawing, virtuoso calligraphy and exquisite ornamentation of Herat manuscripts had a great influence on Iranian, Central Asian and Indian masters of the handwritten book. In the beginning. 16th century the leading role in the artistic life of A. passed to Kabul as the residence of Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty. From Ser. 18th century significant construction was carried out in Kandahar (the 8-sided domed mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Durrani). Folk architecture in A. 18–20 centuries. it is similar in type to residential buildings in Central Asia and Pakistan; domed houses are common in many areas.

A new stage in the development of architecture and fine arts began with the con. 1920s, when a project for the development of new districts of Kabul was developed under the leadership of the French architect A. Godard. Masters from other countries, including Russian ones, took part in the development of Afghan architecture. From con. 1970s intensive construction of residential and public buildings, schools, kindergartens, hydraulic structures was carried out. According to the general plan of 1978, a TV center, a hospital, and a complex of buildings of the Medical Institute were built in Kabul. In separate monumental structures of the 1st floor. - ser. 20th century along with modern architectural forms and new materials (glass, concrete), traditional ones were used (Abidaya Maiwand column in Kabul with decoration of blue tiles and black marble, architect Ismatullah Seraj, 1950s). The School of Fine and Applied Arts and Crafts, founded in Kabul in 1921 and headed by Abdulgafur Breshna, and the work of his students and followers—Gausuddin, Khair Mohammed, Vafa, and others—played an important role in the visual arts. Afghan artists participated in international art exhibitions. After 1978, various forms of agitational (poster, newspaper and magazine graphics) and amateur art developed intensively. Since 1989, a trend has become popular in painting, associated with the revival of the traditions of the Herat miniature. Floral motifs predominate in the decoration of mosques and public buildings.

During the reign of the Taliban, a number of the most valuable monuments of art on the territory of Azerbaijan were destroyed (Bamiyan and others). Traditional crafts continue to occupy a large place in modern art (Herat glass-making, Pashtun painted lacquerware, jewelry, etc.), and carpet weaving remains an important Afghan export.

Music

Musical culture in antiquity was associated with Achaemenid, Bactrian, Kushan, Sasanian traditions. known to exist in the first century AD. e. Zoroastrian cult chants. In the Buddhist cult centers of Bamiyan and Hadda, images of musicians were preserved. Islam had a significant impact on musical culture (this was manifested, in particular, in the traditionally low social status of a musician and dancer). Since the 15th century, with the transfer of the center of musical culture of the Timurids from Samarkand to Herat, a classical musical art has been taking shape, combining the traditions of Arabic (based on the maqam system) and Indian (based on the principle of raga) music; a theory of music oriented towards it was born (for example, A. Jami, the author of the “Treatise on Music”, the 2nd half of the 15th century, lived in Herat; parts of the treatise “Dastarnama” - “The Book of the Turban” by H. Khattak, 1665 are devoted to music ). The flourishing of classical music in Armenia took place between the 17th and 19th centuries.

The musical culture of modern Azerbaijan, due to the ethnic, linguistic, religious, and sociocultural heterogeneity of the population, is a complex phenomenon. For centuries, music has developed in close interaction with the Arab-Iranian, Indian, Middle Asian cultures, and before the beginning. 21st century The southern regions of Azerbaijan remained close to the music of Pakistan, the western regions of Iran, and the northern regions of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Pashtuns, Balochs, Tajiks, Nuristanis, Turkmens, Pamirs, various nomadic tribes have independent traditions. Cult music is associated with the traditions of normative Islam and Sufi brotherhoods; In the central regions of Azerbaijan, the Khazarians have specific genres associated with Shiism. Folklore is represented by labor songs (performed during digging ditches, harvesting, preparing firewood in the mountains, working at a mill) and ensemble instrumental music; music of rituals - calendar, healing, wedding (the crying of the bride babulala is specific; a song performed when the bride's hands are painted with henna); women's home music making; comic songs laba ("game"). Music is accompanied by caravan routes, performances of snake charmers. The vocal genre of landy is widespread (it has been known since the 8th–9th centuries, in the Pashto language, in 2 text varieties: women's love-lyric songs bazmi and men's militant razmi). Popular art, sarinda, archaic arc harp (so-called Kafir), dulcimer santur, chang; wind instruments - nay, tuyduk, surnay, koshnay, karnay, binbaja bagpipes; percussion - membranophones doira, daf, double-sided drum dhol.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with the penetration of European instruments (piano, mandolin, accordion, the so-called Indian harmonica) and other elements of European musical culture into Azerbaijan, new trends emerged. Forms of musical theater began to develop, urban song styles spread widely (singers Sarahang, Y. Kosimi, Nashenas, A. Zoir, Hafizullah Khyal enjoyed nationwide popularity), various performing groups were organized: the Orchestra of National Instruments of the Kabul Radio (1946), the Variety Orchestra (1961), Song and Dance Ensemble "Nargis". Among the performers on traditional instruments are Mohammed Omar (rubob), Abdulmajid (tanbur), M. N. Mazari (gijak), M. Hussein (surnay). Since 1978 festivals of the arts of the peoples of Azerbaijan have been held, and the Union of Artists was created (with a music section, 1980). Many Afghan musicians studied in the USSR. After 1992, all forms of recreational music were banned; a number of musicians left the country (for example, the famous classical singer Makhvash emigrated to the USA). In the 2000s the process of revival of religious and folk music began.

Cinema

The film Like an Eagle by F. M. Khayerzade (1963, in collaboration with India) is considered the first film in Azerbaijan, although foreign films have been shown in cinemas since 1915. Development", 1969, "The Secret of Happiness", 1970), and feature films ("Temporary Workers", 1970, "Mother's Order", 1973, both directed by A. Kh. Alil; "Difficult Days" by V. Latifi, " Rabia-Balkhi" by M. Nadiri, both - 1974; "Statues are laughing", 1976, dir. Shafik). An attempt to modernize the film industry in Azerbaijan was made after the so-called. April Revolution 1978 (“Hot Summer in Kabul” by A. I. Khamraev with the participation of Latifi; 1983, together with the Mosfilm film studio). Afghan students were educated at VGIK, and full-length feature films were created mainly at film studios in the USSR. At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, after the overthrow of the Taliban regime (1996–2001), the support of the international creative intelligentsia contributes to the formation of the Afghan film industry itself (“Osama” by S. Barmak, 2002, IFF Prize at Cannes; “Earth and Ashes” by A. Rahimi , 2004). In cooperation with various countries of the East and West, the films of Barmak (The Opium War, 2008), Rahimi (The Stone of Patience) and N. Khaya (documentary film My Afghanistan: Life in the Forbidden Zone; both - 2012), X Muruvata (“Flying Without Wings”, 2014) and others.

AFGHANISTAN, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Pashto: Da Afghanistan Islami Dawlat, Dari: Dowlat-e Eslвmi-ye Afghвnestвn), is a state in the southwestern part of Central Asia. The name "Afghanistan" appeared relatively recently. Before the beginning 19th century this country was known as Khorasan, which means "sunrise", "east", or "eastern land" in Middle Persian. The Persians, however, have long referred to the Pashtun tribes that inhabited the mountains of the Hindu Kush as Afghans. The British called the country "Afghanland" (since 1801), which was later translated into Persian as Afghanistan, i.e. "Country of the Afghans" To con. 19th century this name of the country was established as the official one. The capital is Kabul (3.04 million people - 2005, estimate). Territory - 647.5 thousand square meters. km. Population - 29.93 million people. (2005, estimate).

Geographic location and boundaries. An inland state (landlocked) located between 29°30" and 38°20"N. and 60°30" and 74°45" E. It borders with Pakistan in the south and east, with Iran in the west, with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, with China and India in the extreme northeast. The closest distance from its borders to the Indian Ocean is approx. 500 km. The length from north to south is 1015 km, from east to west - 1240 km. The borders of Afghanistan were finally determined after the Second World War.

Nature. Surface relief. Afghanistan occupies the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau, which includes high ridges and intermountain valleys. The eastern regions of the country from the southwest to the northeast cross the high massive ridges of the Hindu Kush with a height of more than 4000-5000 m, and within the Wakhan ridge - more than 6000 m. Here, on the border with Pakistan, is the highest point of the country, Mount Naushak (7485 m above sea level). .m.). In the upper tier of mountains, especially in the northeast, there is glaciation with various types of glaciers.

To the west of the Hindu Kush, there is a large, heavily dissected, hard-to-reach upland of Khazarajat with a height of more than 3000 m (some peaks reach 4000 m). In these mountains, physical weathering is actively taking place, as a result of which rocks are destroyed, and their fragments accumulate in the form of talus (hyraxes) along the slopes and at their foot. From Hazarajat to the west and southwest, systems of lower ranges fan out. The Paropamis Mountains, approx. 600 km and up to 250 km wide are located in the north-west of Afghanistan and consist of two main ranges - Safedkuh (in the north) and Siahkuh (in the south). The ridges are separated by the valley of the river Harirud. Safedkuh is approx. 350 km and reaches a height of 3642 m in the east and 1433 m in the west.

In the north of Afghanistan there is a vast Bactrian plain, which has a slope towards the valley of the Amu Darya river. The surface of the plain in the foothills of the Hindu Kush and Paropamis is composed of loess deposits and is dissected by numerous rivers. To the north it passes into the sandy desert. In the extreme north-west and along the border with Iran, the Herat-Farah plateau stretches from 600 to 800 m high. In the south-west of Afghanistan there are drainless hilly plateaus from 500 to 1000 m high, dissected by the valley of the Helmand River. Vast areas are occupied by the sandy deserts of Registan, Garmsir and the clayey-rubbly desert of Dashti-Margo, closed in the extreme south by the Chagay mountains. In the south-east of the country, between the Hindu Kush and the spurs of the Suleiman Mountains, there is a slightly dissected Ghazni-Kandahar plateau less than 2000 m high, to which several oases are confined. The largest of them is located in the vicinity of the city of Kandahar.

Minerals. A lot of minerals are concentrated in the bowels of Afghanistan, but their development is limited due to the difficult mountainous terrain and the lack of developed infrastructure. There are reserves of oil (Sari-Pul), natural gas (Shibergan), coal (Karkar, Ishpushta, Darai-Suf, Karrokh). Salt-bearing structures are pronounced in the north of the country near the town of Talukan. Rock salt is mined in the Andkhoy region and elsewhere. There are industrial deposits of copper (south of Kabul and Kandahar), iron (Khajigek, north and west of Kabul), manganese (in the Kabul region), lead-zinc (Bibi-Gaukhar, Tulak, Farindzhal) and tin ores (Badakhshan). Chrome ores occur in the valley of the Logara River, and to the north of Jalalabad, in the province of Nangarhar, beryl ores are mined. For many centuries, Afghanistan has been famous for its deposits of high-quality lapis lazuli (in the north-east of the country in the Kokchi river basin), as well as other precious and semi-precious stones (ruby, aquamarine and emerald). Alluvial gold deposits have been discovered in Badakhshan and Ghazni. It is possible to extract high-quality marble, talc, granite, basalt, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, kaolin (clay), asbestos, mica, barite, sulfur, amethysts and jasper.

The climate of Afghanistan is continental (with significant temperature ranges), dry. Average temperatures (in Celsius) in January on the plains range from 0° to 8° С? (the absolute minimum is -25° С). The average July temperatures on the plains are 24-32°--С, and the recorded absolute maximum temperature is--+45°--С-- (in Girishka, Helmand prov.). In Kabul, the average temperature in July is + 25 ° - C, - in January - - - - - 3 ° C. During the day, the weather is usually clear, sunny, and cool or cold at night. The average annual rainfall is low: on the plains - approx. 200 mm, in the mountains - up to 800 mm. The rainy season in the plains of Afghanistan lasts from October to April. A specific moisture regime is manifested in the southeast of the country, where summer monsoons penetrate, bringing heavy rainfall in July-August. Thanks to the monsoons, the annual rainfall reaches 800 mm. In the southwest, in Sistan, in some places precipitation does not fall at all. In deserts and arid plains, dry westerly winds often bring sandstorms, while the difference in air temperatures in the lowlands and in the mountains, as well as their abrupt change, causes the formation of strong local winds.

Water resources. With the exception of the Kabul River, which flows into the Indus River and belongs to the Indian Ocean basin, and the left tributaries of the Pyanj (upper course of the Amu Darya River), the rivers of Afghanistan end in endorheic lakes or are lost in the sands. The main source of food for large rivers is the melt water of mountain snows and glaciers. The rivers of the southeastern slopes of the Hindu Kush (the Kunar river) are fed mainly by atmospheric precipitation, as well as groundwater, and rarely dry up. Floods occur in spring and summer. Due to large water withdrawals for irrigation and strong evaporation, even large rivers become shallow in the second half of summer and refill only in spring during the snowmelt in the mountains. Most of the rivers on the eastern slopes of the Hindu Kush and the Suleiman Mountains belong to the Indian Ocean basin and are fed by glaciers. The largest of them is the Kabul River (the basin area is 93 thousand sq. km, the length is 460 km) with numerous tributaries (the Logar, Pyanjshir, Kunar, Aliger, Alishen, Tagao and Surkhab rivers), the most fertile and densely populated region of Afghanistan. On the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush, in Kuhi-Baba, the Helmand River (1130 km) originates, which belongs to the internal drainless basin of Lake Hamun-i-Helmand. It crosses a significant part of the country in a southwestern direction, taking in the foothills the tributary Ergendab, which, in turn, is fed by the rivers Ergestan, Ternek, and others, and is lost within the desert clay plain of Sistan in Iran. The catchment area of ​​the Helmand River is approx. 165 thousand sq. km. In its valley there are a number of oases, the inhabitants of which use the waters of the river for irrigation. From other rivers of the same basin, the Farahrud (560 km), Kharutrud and Rudihor rivers stand out. Their channels dry up most of the year.

The Harirud River (Tejen in the lower reaches on the territory of Turkmenistan, total length 1100 km, in Afghanistan - 600 km) originates in the Hindu Kush and flows to the west, and then turns sharply to the north. Its waters irrigate the fertile Herat oasis. One of the largest rivers is the Amu Darya (in the upper reaches of the Vakhandarya), which is formed from the confluence of the Pyanj (1125 km) and Vakhsh (524 km), which originate in the Pamirs. The rivers of the Bactrian Plain (Balkh, Khulm, etc.) in the north have an unstable flow and dry up greatly in summer. Many of them do not reach the Amu Darya and are lost in the sands, forming vast deltas. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential and, as a rule, are not navigable. The Kabul River is navigable for approx. 120 km. On some rivers, hydrotechnical dams form artificial reservoirs: Sarobi and Naglu on the Kabul River to the east of the capital, Kanjaki on the Helmand and Arghandab rivers near the city of Kandahar.

There are few lakes in Afghanistan. The largest and most picturesque lakes in the Hindu Kush mountains are Sarykul on the Wakhan Pass, Shiva in Gorno-Badakhshan and Bandi-Amir. To the south of Ghazni is the lake Istadeh-i-Mukur. In the west and south-west of the country there are salt lakes Sabari, Namaksar and Dagi-Tundi that dry up in summer. One of the largest is Lake Khamun-i-Helmand (107 sq. km), located on the border of Afghanistan and Iran, it includes the rivers of the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush.

Soils. The foothills and valleys are characterized by chestnut soils, burozems and gray soils, which form in the north on loess, and in the south - on clay-gravel deposits. Chernozem and mountain meadow soils are found on the most humid mountain slopes. The largest part of land suitable for arable land is concentrated in the northern regions and intermountain basins (on alluvial, more fertile soils). In the south and south-west of the country, gray desert soils and solonchaks are common. The fertile soils of the oases are largely the result of centuries of peasant labor.

Vegetation. Dry-steppe and desert landscapes predominate in Afghanistan; dry steppes are common on foothill plains and in intermountain basins. They are dominated by couch grass, fescue and other cereals. The lowest parts of the basins are occupied by takyrs and salt marshes, and in the south-west of the country - by sandy and rocky deserts with a predominance of wormwood, camel's thorn, tamarisk and saxaul. The lower slopes of the mountains are dominated by thorny semi-shrubs (astragalus, acantolimon) in combination with juniper sparse forests, groves of wild pistachio, wild almond and wild rose.

In the Indo-Himalayan region in the east and southeast of the country at altitudes from 750 to 1500 m above sea level. steppes alternate with woody massifs of Indian palm, acacia, figs, almonds. Above 1500 m there are deciduous forests of evergreen balut oak with an undergrowth of almond, bird cherry, jasmine, buckthorn, sophora, cotoneaster. Walnut forests grow in some places on the western slopes, pomegranate groves grow on the southern slopes, Gerard's pine grows at altitudes of 2200-2400 m, changing higher (up to 3500 m) to Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and West Himalayan fir. In more humid areas, spruce-fir forests are common, in the lower tier of which ash grows, and in the undergrowth - birch, pine, honeysuckle, hawthorn and currant. Juniper forests grow on dry, well-warmed southern slopes. Above 3500 m, thickets of juniper dwarf and rhododendron are common, and above 4000 m - alpine and subalpine meadows. Tugai (floodplain) forests are widespread in the valley of the Amudarya River, in which poplar-turanga, jeddah, willow, comb, reeds predominate. Pamir, white and laurel poplar, sucker (essential oil plant), tamarisk, sea buckthorn, and oleander grow in the tugai of mountain rivers.

Animal world. In the open spaces of desert and steppe plains and plateaus, spotted hyenas, jackals, kulans (wild donkeys), gazelles and saiga antelopes are found, in the mountains - leopard irbis, mountain goats, argali mountain sheep (Pamir argali, argali) and bears. In the tugai thickets along the river valleys there are wild boar, reed cat, Turan tiger. The steppe fox, stone marten and wolves are widespread, causing considerable damage to flocks of sheep. There are many reptiles in deserts and dry steppes: monitor lizards, geckos, turtles, agamas (steppe pythons), snakes, poisonous snakes (gyurza, cobra, efa, muzzle). Deserts and steppes abound with rodents (marmots, ground squirrels, voles, gerbils, hares, shrews). There are many poisonous and harmful insects: scorpions, karakurts (Central Asian poisonous spider), phalanxes, locusts, etc. The avifauna is rich (there are about 380 species). Of the birds of prey, the kite, vulture hawk, kestrel, golden eagle, Himalayan vulture, Indian Laggar falcon are common. In the deserts, wheatears, larks, and desert chickens are widespread. The southeastern regions are inhabited by Bengal roller, snipe, southern dove, Himalayan jay, pika, and Indian starling myna. Flamingos nest in lakes south and east of Ghazni. Some species of mammals are under the threat of extinction, incl. leopard, snow leopard, urial mountain sheep and Bactrian deer. For their protection in the beginning. In the 1990s, two wildlife sanctuaries and a national park were created. The rivers abound with commercial fish (asp, marinka, carp, catfish, barbel, trout).

Population. According to the first general census in 1979, the population of Afghanistan was 15.54 million people. (including 2.5 million nomads). According to an estimate for 2005, 29.93 million people lived in the country.

Population density - 43 people. per 1 sq. km, but its distribution is very uneven. Most of the population is concentrated in the valleys of large rivers, where agriculture is carried out and the main cities are located. The most populated are the oases of Kandahar and Kabul (489 people per 1 sq. km - 2003), as well as the regions of Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Kunduz, Baghlan and Jalalabad, where the population density exceeds 100 people. per 1 sq. km. The least inhabited are the highland regions of the Hindu Kush system, as well as the southern and southwestern parts of the country, occupied by the Dashti-Margo and Registan deserts. Here, the population density averages 0.7-10 people. per 1 sq. km.

Natural population growth is traditionally characterized by high birth and death rates. Until mid. In the 1970s, the population growth rate was estimated at 3.5% per year, in 1979 - at 2.6%, in the 1980s - at 2.2% (with a birth rate of 4.9% and a death rate of 2.7%), and in 2000 - at 3.54% (with a birth rate of 4.2% and a death rate of 1.8%). The growth rate in 2001 decreased to 3.48% (taking into account the return of refugees from Iran), but in 2005 it rose again to 4.77%. Birth rate per 1000 people. in 2005 it was 47.02. The mortality rate is 20.75 per 1000 people, while the child mortality rate is one of the highest in the world (163.1 per 1000 births). The average life expectancy is 42.9 years. If current trends in demographic development continue, the expected population in 2025 should reach 48 million people.

There are slightly more males than females in Afghanistan, with the predominance of males over females being most noticeable in the 15 to 64 age group. The average age of Afghans is 17.56 years. In the age structure of the population, the proportion of people under the age of 15 is 44.7% of the population, from 15 to 64 years old - 52.9% and over 65 years old - 2.4%.

Ethnic composition. Afghanistan is a multi-ethnic state, which is inhabited by more than 20 nationalities. The largest of them are Pashtuns (42%), Tajiks (28%), Hazaras (10%), Uzbeks (8%), Charaymaks (2.6%), Turkmens (2%), Balochs (0.5%), Nuristanis (0.4%) and Pashays (0.2%). There are also Arabs, Kurds, Kyzylbash, Afshars, Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Mongols, Nuristanis, etc. (2005).

Representatives of the Pashtun tribes (Pashtans, Pashtuns, Pakhtans), professing orthodox Sunni Islam, number approx. 13 million people They are settled mainly south of the Hindu Kush, in the southeastern and southern border regions with Pakistan, although they also live in the north. All Pashtuns speak the Pashto language, which consists of several dialects and is close to the Persian language (Farsi). Among the Pashtuns there are sedentary and nomadic tribes. Both are militant, many of their disputes are still resolved on the basis of the traditional code of honor - "Pashtunwali", which is based on hospitality, protection of personal dignity and blood feud. According to this code, the Pashtuns are subordinate to the tribal leaders (khans) and the elders of clans and clans (maliks), who form a jirga - a council of tribal or tribal elders. Tribes are divided into branches, which are subdivided into clans (heli), and clans into clans, relations between which are often in the nature of alienation or even hostility. The main Pashtun tribal associations are Sarbani (Durrani, Yusufzai, etc.), Batani (Ghilzai, Hattaki, etc.), Gurgushti (Safi, Kakar, etc.) and Karrani (Waziri, Ahmadzai, Orakzai, etc.). The total number of tribes, according to various sources, reaches 400.

Among the largest tribal groups inhabiting Afghanistan are Durrani (about 7 million people, 2005) and Ghilzai (about 5 million people, 2005), which until the beginning. 20th century viewed as two distinct ethnic groups. The Durrani inhabit mainly the southwest of Afghanistan, the regions of Kandahar, Farah and Herat, as well as most of the cities of the country, and include branches of zirak (barakzai, populzai or karzai, sadozai, alkozai, etc.) and panjpay (nurzai, alizai, adozai, khugiani , iskhakzai, etc.). Unlike most Pashtuns, Durranis are more educated and urbanized, often bilingual, but prefer to speak Dari. The saddozai (populzai clan) and mohammadzai (barakzai clan) clans have long enjoyed the greatest influence in the country. In the creation of Afghanistan as an independent state (the Durranian state) in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, who came from the populzai clan of the Abdali (or Durrani) tribe, played an important role, pushing the Ghilzais out of government. In this regard, the capture of the city of Kabul by the Taliban and their short stay in power is regarded as a historical revenge, since the Ghilzais prevail among the Taliban. President Najibullah, who was executed by the Taliban, belonged to another Pashtun tribe, the Ahmadzais. The current president of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, also belongs to the Durrani, a populzai clan.

The Ghilzai live in the southeast of Afghanistan and in western Pakistan, in the regions of Kalat-i-Ghilzai and Ghazni, but they retain a nomadic lifestyle and include branches of the Turan (Tokhi, Khattak, Kharoti, etc.) and Burkhan (Suleimankhel, Alikhel, tarakhel, ismailzai, ahmadzai, etc.). The Ghilzais speak the Ghilzai dialect of Eastern Pashto. The Ghilzai tribes have played a prominent role in the life of Central Asia since the 11th century. They were the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate (1450-1526), ​​and in 1709-1738 they founded the Hotaki dynasty and led a rebellion against Persian rule, which ultimately led to the short-lived dominance of the Afghans in Persia (from 1722 to 1734). The leaders of the "People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan" (PDPA), Taraki and Amin, who came to power in the 1970s, were Gilzais. Many Mujahideen also came out of the Ghilzais, including Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, as well as the Taliban.

The Karrani tribal association (about 1.5 million people) includes the tribes of Afridia, Momandi, Shinvari, Orakzai, Jadzhi, or Zadzi, Chakmani, Jadran, etc. They mainly inhabit the territory in the southeast of the country, in the Jalalabad region, Khyber Pass and on both sides of the border with Pakistan. Other large tribes: Mangals, Tani, Turi, etc.

The nomads of Afghanistan - Kuchi (or Kuchai), who are usually referred to as Pashtuns, form an independent ethnic group and, according to the current Afghan constitution, enjoy a special position in the state. According to various estimates, from 2.5 to 6 million Kuchis live in Afghanistan, but we are talking not only about the nomadic Pashtun tribes, like the Ahmadzai, but also about the numerous nomadic peoples of the region (Aimaks, Balochs, Arabs, etc.). Largely because of the wars, the Kuchi are forced to abandon their centuries-old nomadic lifestyle and move to settled life.

In second place in terms of numbers (more than 7 million, 2005) are Tajiks, who are among the indigenous inhabitants of this region. To the beginning 13th c. they inhabited all the large oases north and south of the Hindu Kush, now they inhabit mainly the northern and northeastern regions (primarily Herat and Badakhshan), the valleys of the Panjshir and Gorbend rivers, as well as the city of Kabul. As a people of Iranian origin, they use the Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli) language, which is similar to Persian. Sunni Muslims predominate among Tajiks, but there are also many Ismaili Shiites. The main occupations of the Tajiks are agriculture, handicrafts and trade. Many of them, having received education, became officials and statesmen. The President of Afghanistan in 1992-1996, Burhanuddin Rabbani, and the commander of government troops, Ahmad Shah Masood (who was nicknamed the "Panjshir lion") are Tajiks. Tajiks are sometimes referred to as Afshars (about 5 thousand people) and Kyzylbash (10 thousand people), descendants of Persian soldiers who were resettled in Afghanistan in the 18th century. Nadir Shah Afshar. They are settled in Kabul and Kandahar, as well as in Herat, the Qizilbash speak only Dari, and the Afshars speak one of the dialects of the Azerbaijani language (Azeri).

In the steppes in the basin of the Amu Darya River (north-west of Afghanistan) there are several groups speaking Turkic languages ​​- Turkmens, Uzbeks, etc. The first inhabit the northern regions of Afghanistan, primarily Faryab and Badghis, the second live rather compactly in the northern territories of Char Vilayet (four regions), where, before their conquest by the Afghans in the middle. 19th century There were Uzbek khanates Meimane, Akhcha, Balkh and Kunduz. Today these are the districts of Herat, Faryab, Jowzjan, Balkh, Tokhar, Kunduz, Baghlan and Badakhshan. Both those and others also belong to Sunni Muslims, retain a strictly patriarchal social structure. Their main occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding, and the Turkmens are also known as skilled carpet weavers. Often Uzbeks and Turkmens live in the same villages with Tajiks and Afghans without mixing. Small groups among the Uzbek population are settled by Kazakhs (about 2 thousand people, 2003, Kunduz and Khanabad region) and Karakalpaks (about 2 thousand people, 2003, Jalalabad and Mazar-i-Sharif region). The leader of the Afghan Uzbeks, Rashid Dostum, until 2005 headed the National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, which opposed the Taliban.

The Hazaras are a people of Mongolian origin who profess Shia Islam, although there are groups of Sunni and Ismaili Hazaras in the north and northeast of the country. Presumably, the ancestors of the Hazaras came to Afghanistan in the 13th-14th centuries. from China or Mongolia. Today, approx. 5 million Hazaras, not counting refugees in Iran (about 200 thousand people). They are concentrated in the central part of Afghanistan, primarily in Hazarajat (the area between Kabul and Herat), but there are settlements of the Hazaras in other parts of the country (Kabul, Badakhshan, Nangarhar, Kunduz and Kandahar). The Hazaras speak an archaic dialect of Persian. Among them, farmers and sheep breeders predominate; in the cities they form a large stratum of hired workers. The main tribes are Besud, Jaguri, Daizangi, Daikunti, Uruzgani, Sheikhali, Fuladi and Yakaulang. As a religious minority, the Hazaras have always been discriminated against and oppressed by the Pashtuns and Tajiks, but the Taliban have been particularly vicious in their persecution, forcing many Hazaras to flee to Iran (it has long provided political and military support to Shia groups in Afghanistan). The main political organization of the Hazaras is PIEA - "Party of Islamic Unity of Afghanistan" ("Hezbe Wahdat").

In the mountains in the northwest and north of Afghanistan, along the Afghan-Iranian border, live the Charaymaks (or Aimaks) - semi-nomadic peoples of mixed ethnic origin, formed several centuries ago as a result of the merger of the local Tajik population with the Turkic-Mongolian tribes. According to estimates, their number in Afghanistan ranges from 600 thousand to 1.2 million people. Usually, aimaks include Jamshids (92 thousand people), Khazarai-Kalayinau (Aimaks-Kalayinau, 162 thousand people), Firuzkuhs (125 thousand people), Taimani (416 thousand people), and also Teimurs (104 thousand people), which, however, some researchers attribute to Tajiks (data for 2003). In their origin, the Charaimaks are close to the Khazars, they have the same names of tribal associations, but they profess Sunni Islam and speak dialects close to the Dari language.

Balochs (290 thousand people, 2003) and Braguis (about 250 thousand people, 2003) inhabit some areas in the south-west of the country, south of the Helmand River, although separate groups of Balochs also live to the north. Both peoples have much in common: for the most part, they switched to a settled way of life a long time ago, they are engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and carpet weaving. But the Balochi belong to the Indo-Iranian group, and the Brahui, according to some signs, belong to the Dravidian peoples. The main tribal groups of the Bragui are Zahri-Mengal, Raisani and Sarpara. Tribes are divided into clans (takkars), and clans are divided into clans (falli). Living in close proximity to the Balochs, the Brahui adopted many of their customs and linguistic features so much that they often call themselves Balochs, considering themselves to be their special branch.

In addition to the main ethnic groups, throughout Afghanistan, especially north of the Hindu Kush, there are many small ethnic groups that number from several thousand to several hundred people. In the western regions of the country, in Juvain and the Khashrud valley, there are Persian peoples (about 25 thousand people, 2003), who profess Shiite Islam. On the border with Iran, in the southwest of the country, small communities of Kurds are settled. To the north-east of Charikar and to the north of the city of Kabul live Parachi (5-6 thousand people), and to the south and east of it - Ormuri (2-5 thousand people), also belonging to the Iranian group. Researchers consider them to be the descendants of the most ancient population of Afghanistan, who lived here before the advent of the Pashtuns. Other nationalities (Nuristanis, Kirghiz, Kazakhs, Pashai, etc.) are not numerous. Nuristanis, including the tribes of Kati (over 15 thousand people, 1994), Paruni (about 1 thousand people, 2000), Vaigali (1.5 thousand people, 2000) and Ashkuni (about 1.2 thousand people, 2000), as well as tregs (about 1 thousand people, 1994), before the forced conversion to Islam by the Afghan emir in 1895-1896, they were called kafirs ("infidels"). They live quite closed in the high mountains northeast of the Kabul river valley, they speak many dialects, their culture has much in common with the culture of the Pamir Tajiks. In the southeast of Afghanistan, in the mountain valleys of the tributaries of the Kabul and Kunar rivers (next to the Nuristanis), groups of small peoples (Tirahs, Jatis, Kokhistanis, Gujars) live, speaking dialects that stand out as a special Dard subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages. The largest among them are the Pashays or Lagmans (about 124.2 thousand people, 2003), who are close to the Afghans in their way of life and customs. Pamir peoples in Afghanistan number approx. 100 thousand people and are represented by Darvazi (about 10 thousand people, 2003), Shugnans (about 20 thousand people, 1994), Mundans (3.7 thousand people, 2000) and Ishkashim people (about 1 thousand people). , 1990), as well as the Zebak and Sanglich people close to them. Several thousand Wakhans (about 18 thousand people, 1990), who also belong to the Pamir peoples, are concentrated within the narrow Wakhan corridor. In the extreme north-east of the country, in the Pamir Highlands and in Badakhshan, the Kirghiz continue to live (about 0.7 thousand people, 2000). In 1978, most of them migrated to Gilgit and Hunza (Pakistan), and then moved to Turkey (near Lake Van). Uighurs live in several villages in Badakhshan and Abi Barik. Arabs (according to various estimates, from 10 to 35 thousand people) live in several villages in the north of the country: near Dauletabad, Balkh, Shibirgan and south of Talukan. Several thousand Mongols live near Herat.

With all the national diversity, the population of Afghanistan can be combined into four ethno-linguistic groups - Iranian, Turkic, Nuristani and Indo-Aryan. In the south, in the center of the country and in the northeast, Iranian-speaking peoples (Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Aimaks, etc.) predominate, while in the northwest, on the vast Bactrian plain, Turkic peoples (Uzbeks, Turkmens, Kirghiz) have long lived. In the east of the country, in difficult mountainous areas, the peoples of the Indo-Aryan (Pashais, Punjabis) and Nuristani groups are settled.

Languages. It is estimated that there are more than 20 languages ​​and 200 different dialects in Afghanistan. According to the current constitution, Pashto (Afghan) and Dari (Farsi-Kabuli, an Afghan dialect of Persian) are recognized as official languages ​​in Afghanistan. Along with this, five more languages ​​\u200b\u200b(Uzbek, Tajik, Baluchi, Nuristani and Pashai) have official status, but only in those areas where they are used by the majority of the population

From the founding of Afghanistan until 1936, the only official language was Dari, which has a long literary tradition dating back to the Middle Ages. By 1964, all official office work was translated into Pashto (Pashto), the language of the Pashtuns. It belongs to the Indo-European family of languages ​​and has approx. 20 tribal dialects, united in two main branches: eastern, or pakhto (with Ghilzai, Peshevar-Momand and Afridian dialects) and western, or Pashto (with Kandahar (or Durrani), Wazir, Khattak and other dialects). Pashto is most widespread in the Pashtun regions, where it is spoken by approx. 13 million, and government attempts to upgrade its status have so far failed.

Dari (Eastern Farsi), belonging to the Western Iranian group of languages, acts not only as the language of government and economy, but almost everywhere (except for Kandahar province and the eastern regions of Ghazni province, where Pashto dominates) serves as the language of interethnic communication. It is believed that more than half of the population of Afghanistan prefer to speak Dari. Along with the literary form of Dari, its local dialects and subdialects (Kabul, Herat, etc.) are widespread in Afghanistan. The Dari dialects of Badakhshan, Panjshir, Kohistan and the Kabul region are similar to the dialects of the Tajik language in Central Asia. Both languages ​​have a script created on the basis of Arabic script.

One of the dialects of the Kurdish language is spoken on the border with Iran in the Herat region. The Khazarians use one of the archaic dialects (Khazaraji) of the Persian language, with which the Balochi (Baluchi) and Tajik languages ​​are also associated. One of the dialects of Dari is sometimes referred to as the language of the Charaymaks (Aimak), which has many borrowings from the Turkic languages. Uzbeks, Turkmens and Kirghiz belong to the Turkic-speaking peoples. The Nuristanis speak the languages ​​of Kati, Vaigali, Ashkun, Prasun, Vamayi, Paruni, etc., representing a separate ancient branch (Dardic languages), which emerged from the Iranian and Indian language groups. The Brahui speak a language belonging to the Dravidian family, which is similar to the languages ​​of the peoples of South India. Of the Semitic languages, the Tajik dialect of Arabic is known. In the southern regions of Afghanistan, you can hear Urdu, and in some cities - Western Punjabi and Sindhi, which belong to the Indian group of languages.

Rural and urban population. The population of Afghanistan is predominantly rural. Prior to the outbreak of hostilities in the 1980s, ca. 76% of the country's population was mainly engaged in settled agriculture, 9% were pastoralists and led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. By 2003, approx. 77% of the population. There are more than 22 thousand rural settlements ("karya") in the country. According to various estimates, from 2.6 million to 5 million Afghans lead a nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle.

In the middle 1980s, approx. 20% of the country's population. Refugees from the villages replenished the population of a number of large cities, primarily Kabul (about 2 million people, 1989) and Jalalabad. However, due to the hostilities of the 1990s, which broke out in the immediate vicinity of some large cities, there was an outflow of the population, primarily from Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif. Only on the streets of Kabul in 1992-1996 more than 50 thousand inhabitants were killed. As a result of heavy fighting in 1992-1994, the population of the capital and its environs decreased and, according to an estimate in 1996, amounted to only 647.5 thousand people. (in the early 1990s - 2 million people). Most other cities, including Herat and Kandahar, were also heavily affected by the fighting.

By 2003, the proportion of the urban population had risen to 23%, with approximately half of all city dwellers living in Kabul, the country's capital and largest city. In 2005, the number of its inhabitants was 3.04 million people, and in the urban agglomeration - 4.9 million people. In Kabul, you can meet representatives of various ethnic groups inhabiting Afghanistan, but the majority of the inhabitants are Tajiks, Hazaras (about 25%) and Pashtuns (about 20%). Kabul is also inhabited by small communities of Sikhs, Hindus and Uzbeks.

In the south of Afghanistan, at the foot of the spurs of the Western Hindu Kush, the city of Kandahar is located - the second largest city in the country (359.7 thousand inhabitants, 2004) and the most important center of trade connected by a transport network with Pakistan. Kandahar has long been considered the center of Pashtun Afghanistan. Under Ahmad Shah Durrani (1748-1774), the city was the first capital of Afghanistan, in 1818-1855 - the center of the Kandahar principality, and in 1994-2001 - the center of the Taliban movement.

In the west of Afghanistan, in a large oasis on the river Harirud and the intersection of trade routes between Iran, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, the city of Herat is located (254.8 thousand people, 2003). The city was the capital of Afghanistan in 1797, 1818, and then became the center of the Principality of Herat, which was fought over by Afghanistan and Iran. In 1990, Herat became the fiefdom of Ismail Khan (one of the field commanders of the Mujahideen). In 1995, the city was captured by the Taliban, and in November 2001 came under the control of the Northern Alliance.

The most significant cities also include Jalalabad (192 thousand inhabitants) and Ghazni (136.3 thousand people), which are located to the east and south of Kabul, as well as cities in the north of the country: Mazar-i-Sharif (291.9 thousand . people), Kunduz (161.9 thousand people), Bamiyan (119.5 thousand people), Baghlan (105.1 thousand people), Balkh (104.3 thousand people, all data for 2005), Charikar (33.9 thousand people) and Faizabad (14.1 thousand people, data for 2003). Despite population growth, urban recovery is slow and investment in infrastructure is minimal. Most cities are in need of a system of sewage treatment plants, water pumping stations and public transport.

Migrations. Internal migrations have traditionally been small and associated with the movement of nomadic tribes or resettlement from the countryside to cities and oases. From con. In the 1970s, external migration increased sharply. According to estimates, to the beginning. In the 1980s, up to 4.5 million Afghan refugees turned out to be in the border areas of Pakistan and Iran, incl. OK. 3 million in Pakistan and 1.5 million in Iran. In addition, at least 150 thousand refugees from Afghanistan were accepted by other countries, incl. Australia, USA and Canada, countries of Western Europe and the Middle East. By 1987, there were 5.5-7 million refugees in Pakistan and Iran. Their number was somewhat reduced to the end. 1992, when approx. 1.5 million people New flows of refugees poured into neighboring countries in 1995-1998 and 2001-2002. According to UN estimates, by mid. In the 1990s, the number of refugees from Afghanistan increased to 6.5 million, of which approx. 2.9 million people were in Iran. On the territory of Russia to the end. In the 1990s, at least 100,000 Afghans lived. In con. 2001 after the fall of the Taliban, many of them began to return to Afghanistan. To con. In 2004, more than 1.5 million refugees from Pakistan and over 1.46 million from Iran returned to the country. According to preliminary estimates, between 2 and 4 million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan in 2005.

Religion. The state religion of Afghanistan is Islam. According to the constitution, adherents of other faiths (Sikhs and Hindus) have equal rights with Muslims.

The vast majority of the population of Afghanistan (80%) is Muslim. The most common Sunnism of the Hanafi persuasion, which is followed by approx. 80% of all Afghans. Sunnis are Pashtuns and Uzbeks, Turkmens, Balochs, as well as part of the Charaimaks and Tajiks. One of the last to accept Islam was the Nuristani, who are still in the con. 19th century adhered to local beliefs. A number of large Sufi orders still operate on the territory of the country - Chishtiyya, Naqshbandiyya and Kadiriyya (See SUFISM). A small group of the population belongs to the Ahmadiyya sect. Shiism is practiced ca. 19% of the country's inhabitants, among them the Hazaras, Qizilbash and Persians, as well as some mountain Pashtun tribes (Afghans-Dzadzi) and part of the Teimurs. There are Shiite communities in the region of Kabul, Herat, Ghazni and Hazarajat. The peoples of Badakhshan and part of the Tajiks mostly belong to the Ismailis (about 2% of the Muslims of Afghanistan), whose main center is the city of Puli-Khumri (Baghlan province). Of the religious minorities, the most numerous are the communities of Sikhs and Hindus (about 3.7 thousand people, 2005), who live mainly in large cities. Parsis (Zoroastrians) also remain in Afghanistan, and a Catholic mission operates. In 1948 in Afghanistan (mainly in Herat, Kabul and Balkh) lived approx. 5 thousand Jews, by 1973 there were only approx. 200 people Most of the Jewish families left the country, moving to Israel.

The climate of Afghanistan is diverse due to the large number of hills and mountains located on the territory of the country. Summers in the country are hot and winters are cold. In addition to altitude differences, the difference in climatic conditions is also explained by the country's lack of access to the sea - in summer there is almost no cooling effect on the territory of the country that proximity to the sea could provide, and in winter the cold is less controlled. In the southwestern part of Afghanistan, there is a combination of two types of climate - warm steppe and warm desert. In the north-eastern part of the country the climate is cold steppe.

Hot Summer

The summer months in Afghanistan are characterized by hot and dry days. In June, July, and August the nights are also warm. At night, in the lower parts of the country, the air temperature averages 22-28 degrees Celsius. In places with an altitude of over 3,000 meters above sea level, the temperature may be lower. In summer, hot winds often blow at speeds of up to 150 kilometers per hour, which bring with them a lot of dust and sand from Iran. Such a wind is called "sistan", or "120-day wind". In July, the maximum air temperature can often reach 36-43 degrees. From August the temperature drops. In October, the wetter and cooler season begins.

Low rainfall

There is little rainfall in Afghanistan. Most of the rain falls in winter. In the northern part of the country, slightly more rain falls in April and May than in other parts of Afghanistan. In the country's capital, Kabul, only 350 mm falls. rain per year. In Kandahar, the rain is even less - only 200 mm. per year, and in the driest regions of the country in the south-west, on the border with Iran, precipitation is even less. In Zaranj, 50 mm falls. precipitation per year, and in some years it can fall as little as 20 mm. and less.

The climate of Afghanistan in numbers

The table below shows the average minimum and maximum air temperatures in the capital of Afghanistan, Kabul, throughout the year.

Afghanistan is located in Southwest Asia, between longitudes 60°30` and 75° E and 20°21` and 38°30` N, mainly within the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau. Afghanistan borders Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, China and India in the extreme northeast.

The state is divided into 29 provinces (vilayats) and 2 districts of central subordination. In the mid-1980s, approx. 20% of the country's population. Refugees from the villages replenished the population of a number of large cities, primarily Kabul and Jalalabad. However, due to the hostilities of the 1990s, which broke out in the immediate vicinity of some large cities, there was an outflow of the population, primarily from Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif. As a result of heavy fighting in 1992, the population of the capital and its environs decreased and, according to an estimate in 1996, amounted to only 647.5 thousand people against 2 million in the early 1990s. Other major cities reportedly had a population (thousands): Kandahar, approx. 225.5, Herat - 177.3, Mazar-i-Sharif - 130.6, Jalalabad - 58.0 and Kunduz - 57.

Relief of Afghanistan

Mountains and plateaus occupy 80% of the territory, rocky deserts and dry steppes are located in most of the country. Afghanistan occupies the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau, which includes high ridges and intermountain valleys. The eastern regions of the country from the southwest to the northeast are crossed by the high massive ridges of the Hindu Kush with a height of more than 4000-5000 m, and within the Wakhan ridge - more than 6000 m. Here, on the border with Pakistan, is the highest point of the country, Mount Naushak (7485 m). In the upper tier of mountains, especially in the northeast, modern glaciation with various types of glaciers is widely developed.

To the west of the Hindu Kush, there is a large, heavily dissected, hard-to-reach upland of Khazarajat with a height of more than 3000 m (some peaks reach 4000 m). In these mountains, physical weathering is actively taking place, as a result of which rocks are destroyed, and their fragments accumulate in the form of talus (damans) along the slopes and at their foot. From Hazarajat to the west and southwest, systems of lower ranges fan out. The Paropamis Mountains, approx. 600 km, up to 250 km wide and consisting of two main ranges: Safedhok - in the north and Siahkok - in the south, separated by the valley of the river Harirud, are located in the north-west of Afghanistan. The Safedkokh ridge has a length of approx. 350 km and reaches a height of 3642 m in the east and 1433 m in the west.

In the north of Afghanistan there is a vast Bactrian plain, which has a slope towards the Amu Darya valley. The surface of the plain in the foothills of the Hindu Kush and Paropamis is composed of loess deposits and is dissected by numerous rivers. To the north it passes into the sandy desert.

In the south-west of Afghanistan there are drainless hilly plateaus with a height of 500 to 1000 m. Vast areas are occupied by the sandy Registan desert and the clay-gravelly Dashti-Margo desert.

In the south-east of the country there is a slightly dissected plateau with a height of less than 2000 m, to which several oases are confined. The largest of them is in the vicinity of the city of Kandahar.

Minerals of Afghanistan

A lot of minerals are concentrated in the bowels of Afghanistan, but their development is limited. Afghanistan has reserves of such important energy resources as oil (Sari-Pul), natural gas (Shibirgan), coal (Karkar, Ishpushta, Darai-Suf, Karokh). Salt-bearing structures near Talikan are pronounced in the north of the country. Rock salt is mined near Anahoy and in other places. There are industrial deposits of copper (south of Kabul), iron (north and west of Kabul), beryllium (north of Jalalabad), manganese, lead-zinc, and tin ores. Afghanistan is famous for its deposits of high-quality lapis lazuli (in the north-east of the country in the Kokchi river basin). There are placer deposits of gold. It is possible to extract high-quality marble, talc, granite, basalt, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, kaolin, asbestos, mica, emeralds, amethysts, jasper.

Statistical indicators of Afghanistan
(as of 2012)

Afghanistan is the only major supplier of lapis lazuli to the world market. There is a large natural gas field in the Shibirgan area (136 billion cubic meters)

Climate of Afghanistan

subtropical continental (with significant temperature ranges), dry. Average January temperatures on the plains range from 0° to 8°C (absolute minimum -20 - -25°C). Average temperatures in July on the plains are 24–32°C, and the recorded absolute maximum temperature is 45°C (in Girishka, Helmand Prov.). In Kabul, the average temperature in July is 25° C, and in January it is 3° C. During the day, the weather is usually clear and sunny, while at night it is cool or cold.

The average annual rainfall is low: on the plains approx. 200 mm, in the mountains up to 800 mm. The rainy season in the plains of Afghanistan lasts from October to April. A specific moisture regime is manifested in the southeast of the country, where summer monsoons penetrate, bringing heavy rainfall in July-August. Thanks to the monsoons, the annual rainfall reaches 800 mm. In the southwest, in Sistan, in some places precipitation does not fall at all.

Water resources of Afghanistan

The main rivers are the Amu Darya, Murghab, Harirud, Helmand, Kabul. With the exception of the Kabul River, which flows into the Indus, and the left tributaries of the Panj (upper reaches of the Amu Darya), the rivers of Afghanistan end in drainless lakes or are lost in the sands. The main source of food for large rivers is mountain snow and glaciers. Floods occur in spring and summer. Due to large water withdrawals for irrigation and strong evaporation, even large rivers become shallow in the second half of summer. On the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush, the Kabul and Helmand rivers, which have glacial nutrition, originate. The most fertile and densely populated region of Afghanistan is confined to the Kabul basin. The Helmand River crosses a significant part of the country in a southwestern direction and is lost within the desert clay plain of Sistan in Iran. There are a number of oases in its valley. The Harirud River (Tejen in the lower reaches of Turkmenistan) originates in the Hindu Kush and flows west, and then sharply turns north, forming the Iran-Afghan border. Its waters irrigate the fertile Herat oasis. The rivers of the Bactrian Plain in the north have an unstable flow and dry up greatly in summer. Many of them do not reach the Amu Darya and are lost in the sands, forming vast deltas. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential and, as a rule, are not navigable. The Kabul River is navigable for approx. 120 km.

There are few lakes in Afghanistan. In the Hindu Kush mountains, the largest and most picturesque lakes are Sarykul, Shiva and Bandi-Amir. In the west and south-west of the country there are salt lakes that dry up in summer - Sabari, Namaksar, Dagi-Tundi.

Soils. The foothills and valleys are characterized by chestnut soils, burozems and gray soils, which are formed in the north on loess deposits, and in the south - on clayey-gravelly. Chernozem and mountain meadow soils are found on the most humid mountain slopes. The largest part of arable land is concentrated in the northern regions and intermountain basins (on alluvial, more fertile soils). In the south and south-west of the country, gray desert soils and solonchaks are common. The fertile soils of the oases are largely the result of centuries of peasant labor.

natural areas. Flora and fauna of Afghanistan

The plains of Afghanistan are dominated by deserts. The plateaus are occupied by steppes. Forests (about 5% of the territory) are concentrated in the middle mountain belt of the Hindu Kush in the east of the country. At an altitude of 2400-3500 m, coniferous forests dominate. Tugai forests are common in the river valleys.

Dry-steppe and desert landscapes predominate in Afghanistan; dry steppes are common on foothill plains and in intermountain basins. They are dominated by couch grass, fescue and other cereals. The lowest parts of the basins are occupied by takyrs and salt marshes, and in the south-west of the country - by sandy and rocky deserts with a predominance of wormwood, camel's thorn, tamarix, saxaul. The lower slopes of the mountains are dominated by thorny semi-shrubs (astragalus, acantolimon) in combination with juniper sparse forests, groves of wild pistachio, wild almond and wild rose.

In the Indo-Himalayan region in the east and southeast of the country at altitudes from 750 to 1500 m above sea level. steppes alternate with woody massifs of Indian palm, acacia, figs, almonds. Above 1500 m there are deciduous forests of evergreen balut oak with an undergrowth of almond, bird cherry, jasmine, buckthorn, sophora, cotoneaster. Walnut forests sometimes grow on the western slopes, pomegranate groves grow on the southern slopes, and Gerard's pine grows at altitudes of 2200–2400 m, higher (up to 3500 m) giving way to Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and West Himalayan fir. In more humid habitats, spruce-fir forests are common, in the lower tier of which ash grows, and in the undergrowth - birch, pine, honeysuckle, hawthorn, and currant. Juniper forests grow on dry, well-warmed southern slopes. Above 3500 m, thickets of juniper elfin and rhododendron are common, and above 4000 m - alpine and subalpine meadows.

Tugai forests are widespread in the Amudarya valley, dominated by poplar-turanga, jeddah, willow, comb, reeds. In the tugai of mountain rivers, Pamir poplar, white and laurel poplar, sucker, tamarix, sea buckthorn grow, in the south - oleander.

Wildlife Spotted hyenas, jackals, wild kulan donkeys, goitered antelopes and saiga antelopes live in the open spaces of desert and steppe plains and plateaus, in the mountains - leopard irbis, mountain goats, mountain sheep-argali. In the tugai thickets along the river valleys there are wild boar, reed cat, Turan tiger. The Afghan fox, stone marten and wolves are widespread, causing considerable damage to flocks of sheep, especially in winter. In deserts and dry steppes, the world of reptiles is richly represented: monitor lizards (up to half a meter long), agamas, steppe python, poisonous snakes (gyurza, cobra, efa, muzzle). The deserts abound with rodents (marmots, ground squirrels, voles, gerbils). There are many poisonous and harmful insects: scorpions, karakurts, phalanges, locusts, etc. The avifauna is rich. Such birds of prey as the kite, vulture hawk, kestrel, golden eagle, Himalayan vulture, Indian Laggar falcon are characteristic. In the deserts, wheatears, larks, and desert chickens are widespread. The southeastern regions are characterized by the Bengal roller, snipe, southern dove, Himalayan jay, pika, Indian starling-myna. The rivers abound with such commercial fish as barbel, catfish, carp, trout, asp.

Population of Afghanistan

Number and national composition. According to the first general census in 1979, the population of Afghanistan was 15,540 thousand people, including 2,500 thousand nomads. In the 1980s, the annual natural population growth rate was estimated at 2.2% with a birth rate of 4.9% and a death rate of 2.7%, and in 2000 they respectively amounted to 3.54% (taking into account the return of refugees from Iran), 4, 2% and 1.8%. According to an estimate for 2003, 28,717 thousand people lived in the country.

Afghanistan is a multinational country. The population of the country for 38% consists of representatives of the Pashtun tribes professing orthodox Sunni Islam. They are settled mainly in the southeastern and southern border regions with Pakistan. Ahmad Shah Durrani, a descendant of the powerful Pashtun Durrani tribe, played an important role in the founding of Afghanistan as an independent state (the Durranian state) in 1747. In this regard, the recent capture of Kabul by the Taliban and their rise to power is seen by them as a historical revenge, since the Durrani prevail among the Taliban. President Najibullah, who was executed by the Taliban, belonged to another Pashtun tribe, the Ahmedzai.

All Pashtuns speak Pashto, a language close to Persian (Farsi). Among the Pashtun tribes there are sedentary and nomadic. Both are militant, many disputes are still resolved on the basis of the traditional code of honor - Pashtunvali, which is based on the protection of personal dignity and blood feud.

In second place in terms of numbers (25%) are Tajiks living in the northern and northeastern regions of the country, behind the Hindu Kush. Being a people of Iranian origin, they use the Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli) language, similar to Persian. Sunni Muslims predominate among Tajiks, but there are also many Ismailis. The main occupations of Tajiks are agriculture and trade. Many of them, having received education, became officials and statesmen.

Turkmens (3% of the population) live in the north-west of Afghanistan, and Uzbeks (9%) live in the north. Both of them are also Sunni Muslims. Their main occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding, Turkmens are known as skilled carpet weavers. Uzbek leader Rashid Dostum heads the National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, which counters the Taliban.

The Hazaras, a people of Mongolian origin, professing Shiite Islam, is approx. 19% of the population of Afghanistan. They are concentrated in the central part of the country: farmers and sheep breeders predominate among them, in the cities they form a large stratum of hired workers. Their main political organization is the Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan (Hezbe Wahdat).

In the western regions of the country, Persian peoples professing Shiite Islam live. Other nationalities (Nuristanis, Vakhans, Kirghiz, Charaimaks, Braguis, Kazakhs, Pashais, etc.) are not numerous. The Nuristanis, including the Kati, Paruni, Waigali, and Ashkuni tribes, were called kafirs (“infidels”) before being forcibly converted to Islam by the Afghan emir in 1895–1896. They lead a very secluded lifestyle in the high mountains north of the Kabul river valley. Several thousand Vakhans are concentrated within the narrow Wakhan corridor, while the Kyrgyz are concentrated in the extreme northeast of the country, in the Pamir Highlands. Charaimaks, or aimaks (about 600 thousand people), a people of mixed ethnic origin, live in the mountains in the west of the country, along the Afghan-Iranian border. Baloch and Brahui inhabit some areas in the south-west of the country.

Prior to the outbreak of hostilities in the 1980s, approximately 76% of the Afghan population was mainly engaged in sedentary agriculture, and 9% were pastoralists and led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle.

Languages. According to the latest constitution in force, Pashto and Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli, the Afghan dialect of Persian) were recognized as the official languages ​​of Afghanistan. Dari serves as the lingua franca almost everywhere except in Kandahar Province and the Pashto-dominated eastern regions of Ghazni Province. Uzbeks, Turkmens and Kirghiz belong to the Turkic-speaking peoples. The Khazarians use one of the archaic dialects of the Persian language, which is also associated with Baluchi and the Tajik language. Nuristani speak languages ​​that represent a separate ancient branch that emerged from the Iranian and Indian language groups. The Brahui speak a language belonging to the Dravidian family, similar to the languages ​​of the peoples of South India.

The first written mention of Afghanistan dates back to the 6th century BC. e. It is clear that in fact the history of this country goes deeper for many centuries. Until now, in Afghanistan you can meet the descendants of the Greeks who came there with Alexander the Great. In this ancient country, despite numerous wars, many unique sights have been preserved. In addition, there are excellent conditions for mountaineering and rock climbing. Unfortunately, due to the political situation, Afghanistan remains closed to foreign tourists for the time being.

Geography of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is located at the crossroads of South, Central and West Asia. In the south and east, Afghanistan borders with Pakistan and China (in the east), in the west - with Iran, in the north - with Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. There is no access to the sea. The total area of ​​this country is 647,500 sq. km., and the total length of the state border is 5,529 km.

Most of Afghanistan is occupied by mountains, but there are valleys, steppes and deserts. The Hindu Kush mountain range stretches from northeast to southwest. The highest point in the country is Mount Noshak, whose height reaches 7,492 meters.

In the north of Afghanistan there is the Amu Darya River. Other large Afghan rivers are Harirud, Helmand, Farahrud and Hashrud.

Capital

The capital of Afghanistan is Kabul, which is now home to about 700 thousand people. According to archeology, an urban settlement on the site of modern Kabul already existed in the 2nd century AD.

Official language of Afghanistan

Afghanistan has two official languages, Pashto and Dari (Farsi), both of which belong to the Iranian group of the Indo-European language family.

Religion

Almost all the inhabitants of Afghanistan profess Islam, the vast majority of them are Sunnis, and about 15% are Shiites.

State structure of Afghanistan

According to the current Constitution of 2004, Afghanistan is an Islamic republic in which Islam is the state religion. The head of the country is the President, elected for 5 years.

The bicameral parliament in Afghanistan is called the National Assembly, it consists of two chambers - the House of Elders (102 people) and the House of the People (250 deputies).

To make particularly important decisions (for example, to approve the Constitution), the Council of Elders "Great Assembly" gathers in Afghanistan. The history of the "Great Assemblies" goes back centuries and is lost somewhere in the 15th century.

Climate and weather

Most of Afghanistan is located in the subarctic mountain climate (winter is dry and cold). In the rest of the Afghan territory, the climate is desert and semi-desert. Mountains and valleys on the border with Pakistan are exposed to monsoons from the Indian Ocean in summer. In summer the air temperature reaches +49C, and in winter - -9C. Most of the precipitation falls between October and April. In the mountains, the average annual precipitation is 1,000 mm, and in deserts and semi-deserts - 100 mm.

Rivers and lakes

In the north of Afghanistan, the Amu Darya flows, the tributaries of which are lost in the Hindu Kush. In general, many Afghan rivers are replenished with water flows from the mountains. Other large Afghan rivers are Harirud (flowing from the central part of the country to the west, forming the border with Iran there), Helmand, Farahrud, Kabul and Hashrud. By the way, the Kabul River crosses the border with Pakistan and then flows into the Indus River.

Afghan lakes are small in size. Of these, the Zarkol lakes (borders with Tajikistan), Shiveh in Badakhshan and the salt lake Istadeh-ye Moqor, located south of Ghazni, should be distinguished.

Culture of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is made up of various ethical groups. Therefore, the culture of this country is very diverse.

One of the most important holidays for the Afghans is Navruz, but this is understandable, because. they are mostly Muslims (some experts argue that Navruz is not a Muslim holiday). In general, Afghans celebrate all the main Islamic holidays - Mawlid an Nabi, Eid al-Ada and Eid al-Fitr (we have already mentioned Navruz).

Many Afghan holidays are domestic in nature (they are celebrated in the family circle).

Kitchen

Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks live in Afghanistan. This means that Afghan cuisine is a fusion of the culinary traditions of these three peoples. In addition, Afghan cuisine is clearly influenced by India. It was from India that spices (saffron, coriander, cardamom and black pepper) came to Afghanistan. Afghans prefer dishes that are neither too spicy nor too hot.

The most popular dishes among Afghans are Qabli Pulao (boiled rice with carrots, raisins and lamb), Kabab (mutton skewers), Qorma (meat with vegetables and fruits), Mantu dumplings, Shorma soup. By the way, Afghans love to eat Qorma with Chalow rice. There are three types of bread in Afghanistan - Naan, Obi Naan and Lavash.

An integral part of the Afghan diet is fresh and dried fruits (grapes, apricots, melons, plums, pomegranates, various berries).

Traditional non-alcoholic drinks - kefir, whey, tea.

Landmarks of Afghanistan

In ancient times, the territory of modern Afghanistan was part of some of the most ancient states in the world. The ancient Greeks, led by Alexander the Great, reached these lands (and conquered them). Unfortunately, due to numerous wars, many Afghan historical and cultural monuments have already been irretrievably lost. However, this country still retains unique sights. The Top 10 most interesting Afghan sights, in our opinion, may include the following:

1. Wazir Akbar Khan Mosque in Kabul
2. Sherpur Mosque in Kabul
3. Fortress of Ghazni
4. Mausoleum of Timur Shah in Kabul
5. Fort in Nuristan
6. Puli Khishti Mosque in Kabul
7. Tomb of Ahmad Shah Massoud in Panjshir
8. Mausoleum of Emir Abdurrahman in Kabul
9. The ruins of the Takhti-Pul mosque in Balkh
10. Palace of Emir Habibullah near Kabul

Cities and resorts

The largest cities in Afghanistan are Herat, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad, Kutsnduz and, of course, the capital is Kabul.

In Afghanistan, there are excellent conditions for mountaineering and rock climbing. In the northeast of the country is Mount Nushak, which is part of the Hindu Kush mountain system. Many climbers dream of conquering this peak, but due to the political situation, this is not yet feasible.

A few years ago, the Afghan authorities opened the Abi-Wakhan mountain route, which runs through the territory of the picturesque gorge of the same name. Once a section of this route was part of the Great Silk Road. However, tourists are not yet in a hurry to come to Afghanistan.

Souvenirs/Shopping

From Afghanistan, foreigners usually bring handicrafts, carpets, Afghan sheepskin coats, national men's clothing, knives, etc.

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