Caucasian Crimean train ticket. Political situation in Russia in the 13th century

Relief and geological structure. The axial zone covers the most elevated part of the Caucasus meganticlinorium; its width ranges from 20 to 50 km. It is characterized by high-mountain, highly dissected relief, antiquity of the geological structure, the intensity of recent tectonic movements and high activity of exogenous processes. During the glacial eras, the core of the glaciation of the entire mountain system was located here. A characteristic feature of the relief of the axial zone of the Main Range is the asymmetry of the transverse profile: the longer (715 km) and gentle northern macroslope is stepped (North Caucasus); The short (2-14 km) southern macroslope is very steep. In the area of ​​the “main thrust” the southern slope resembles a cliff. The height of the mountains on the northern slope decreases in several steps along faults with a displacement amplitude in each step of about 300 m. The range of heights (from the watershed to the bottom of the valleys) is 2 - 3 km. The slopes of many longitudinal valleys in the Western and Central Caucasus are asymmetrical: one slope is more gentle, stepped, the other is steep and steep. Due to their morphology, different slopes are subject to different exogenous processes.

Climate. The climate of most of Crimea is a temperate climate: soft steppe in the flat part; more humid, characteristic of deciduous forests, in the mountains. The southern coast of Crimea is characterized by a sub-Mediterranean climate of dry forests and bushes. Crimea receives the greatest amount of solar heat in the summer, especially in July. Spring here is cooler than autumn. A relatively small amount of atmospheric precipitation, a long dry summer, and the distribution of cast rocks in the mountains caused the Crimea to be poor in surface water. Crimea is divided into two parts: a flat steppe with a small number of surface watercourses and a mountain forest with a relatively dense river network. There are no large freshwater lakes here. In the coastal strip of the Crimean plain there are about 50 estuary lakes.

In the ridge zone of the Talysh Mountains, meadow-steppes are developed, their slopes are covered with forests. Lankaran and Colchis lowlands. with the low mountains that frame them, they belong to the humid and semi-humid subtropics (broadleaf forests, swamps). Kura. Araks lowland - subtropical area. semi-desert. South coast of Crimea and West. Transcaucasia is included within the eastern borders. the outskirts of the Mediterranean zone of Eurasia. To the South on the coast of Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus north of Tuapse, moderately hot, dry summers give way to relatively warm, wet winters (average temperature in January is about 3 °C, in July 24 °C, precipitation is about 600 mm per year). The amount of precipitation reaches 1000 mm in places.

Summer in the mountains is cool: the average temperature in July is about + 15 degrees, and winter is snowy, with average temperatures in January - 4 degrees. The greatest amount of precipitation within the second ridge occurs in June. Sharp contrasts are characteristic between the northern and southern slopes, both in temperature and in the distribution of precipitation.

Hydrogeological features of the area. In the study area, there are two main types of groundwater: fissure type (groundwater of the exogenous fracture zone and fissure vein water) and pore water type. The area of ​​groundwater recharge is confined to the outcrops of a platform complex of rocks, composed mainly of Cretaceous, Paleogene and Quaternary deposits. The aquiclude is flysch and clay deposits of the Tauride series and volcanic-sedimentary rocks of the Middle Jurassic. The source of groundwater supply is mainly atmospheric precipitation. Replenishment of groundwater reserves also occurs due to surface watercourses during the flood period.

In the mountains, the direction of the valleys is consequential (transverse). The longitudinal character is preserved mainly by lateral tributaries and some large valleys in the southeastern and western parts of the Caucasus. The connection with transverse and longitudinal faults can be traced in the articulated structure of the valley sections. The slopes of the longitudinal profile are more than 10 -100 m/km. The shape of most valleys is similar in plan: they are short straight sections, sharp bends, alternating with widened sections, which allows them to be classified as a lattice type of structure, characteristic of the highlands. The width of the valleys ranges from 1 to 12 km. The transverse profiles of the upper valleys of large tributaries and main valleys are similar. These are deep trogs that usually have one shoulder that is well defined; but there are areas with a V-shaped profile. Crossbars and bends alternate with flattened areas. Such features are typical for valleys that have been subjected to the gouging effect of glaciers on the bedrock.

Soil and vegetation cover. The exposure effect in the Crimean Mountains is reflected in both the difference in vegetation and soil cover of the northern and southern slopes. Characteristic are xerophytic shrubs and forests of oak and pine on brown soils. Colchis and Lenkoran lowlands belonging to the semi-humid subtropics. They have a more humid climate, which is due to their position at the foot of mountain ranges located near the coasts. Annual precipitation in the Colchis lowland. OK. 1500 mm, in Lenkoran - several. less. In the south of Colchis wed. January temperature 6 -7 °C. Dense broad leaves are common. forests intertwined with vines with an admixture of evergreen species. They include oak, hornbeam, beech, chestnut, alder, and evergreen species - Pontic rhododendron, boxwood, and cherry laurel. Basic soils - red soils and yellow soils. The fauna of the Lenkoran lowland is distinguished by its great originality. (porcupine, leopard, jungle cat, on the coast of the Caspian Sea - flamingos). Subtropical fruit growing and viticulture in the Colchis and Lenkoran lowlands. - cultivation of tea, citrus fruits.

Vertical zonation is clearly visible in the soil and vegetation cover of the Greater Caucasus. Cis-Caucasian chernozems with their forb and meadow-steppe vegetation already in the foothill regions, in their highest areas, are replaced by mountain forest soils and mountain chernozems, on which broad-leaved, mainly oak forests grow, and in higher zones - beech forests. Mountain valleys are covered with pine forests. The upper border of the forest on the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus lies at an altitude of 2000-2200 m. Above that, subalpine and alpine mountain-meadow soils begin, covered with meadow vegetation.

Animal world. The order of carnivores is dominated by small and medium-sized animals. The smallest predator is the weasel, the largest are the badger and, perhaps, the fox. They feed either purely animal food, like the ferret and weasel, or a mixed diet, like the marten, fox, badger, and raccoon dog. The marten lives in the foothills, the raccoon dog, or, as it is incorrectly called, the Ussuri raccoon, lives along the North Crimean Canal, the weasel - throughout the Crimea. Badger is a forest dweller. Ferrets and steppe foxes are more common in steppe areas. The mountain-forest part of the peninsula is characterized by another subspecies of the fox, according to scientists - the mountain-forest fox. The order of artiodactyls unites the largest animals. Among them is the pride of the peninsula - the Crimean red deer. The graceful roe deer is also an aboriginal species, a relative of deer.

In less developed and plowed areas, the bustard, very rarely the little bustard, and the steppe eagle nest. Many waterfowl and wading birds nest on ponds or stop during migration. In the Caspian areas of Tersko. In the Kuma Lowland, steppe animals are already rare. Here many species are close to Central Asian ones. Semi-desert animals predominate: the small ground squirrel, gerbils (midday and combed), bandaged, long-eared hedgehog, four species of jerboas (eurasian, molefoot, small, tarbagan), giant mole rat. Larger animals include saiga and the small corsac fox; the reed cat is often found in the reed thickets. Lizards are widespread both in steppes and semi-deserts. Among reptiles, the steppe viper and sand boa are typical. As in the steppes, there are many insects and spiders; Among the latter, the poisonous tarantula is widely known. Here, either everywhere or in strictly defined types of forest, the brown Caucasian bear, lynx, wild boar, Caucasian deer, roe deer, martens (forest martens, or yellow martens, and stone martens, or white martens) live here. It is very rare to see a leopard, which comes here from the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. Among the birds, in addition to the common forest birds, rare ones should be mentioned: the black woodpecker, the crossbill, and the bullfinch. In the foothills, among the thickets of bushes and low trees, there are beautifully painted

Position in the economic zoning grid When economic zoning in the Russian Federation, 11 economic regions are distinguished: 1. Central 2. Central Black Earth 3. East Siberian 4. Far Eastern 5. Northern 6. North Caucasian 7. Northwestern 8. Volga 9. Ural 10. Volga-Vyatka 11. West Siberian Crimean region belongs to Ukraine, borders the Russian Federation in the east, with the North Caucasus region through the Sea of ​​Azov and the Kerch Strait.

North Caucasus region. The area of ​​the North Caucasus region is 430 thousand square meters. m. The North Caucasus economic region is one of the most important economic regions of Russia. It includes the following subjects (capitals are indicated in brackets): Adygea (Maikop) Dagestan (Makhachkala) North Ossetia - Alania (Vladikavkaz) Kabardino-Balkaria (Nalchik) Karachay-Cherkessia (Cherkessk) Ingushetia (Nazran) Chechnya (Grozny) Krasnodar Territory (Krasnodar) Stavropol Territory (Stavropol) Rostov Region (Rostov-on-Don).

Geodemographic characteristics of the North Caucasus region. Over 18 million people live on its territory. Unlike other regions of the European part of Russia, natural population growth is high in the North Caucasus. The North Caucasus has the most multinational population; more than 30 nationalities live in Dagestan alone. The most numerous are Russians and Ukrainians. The most numerous indigenous nationalities of the North Caucasus now form independent republics: Adygea, Dagestan, Ingush and Chechen. The population density of the North Caucasus is one of the highest after Moscow and amounts to 50 people per square meter. km. 60% of the population lives in the cities of the North Caucasus, 40% in agricultural regions. Due to political instability and military operations, there is an outflow of the Russian-speaking population from the national republics. The refugee problem and the migration problem are getting worse. In connection with the Chechen War and other national conflicts, there is a migration outflow of refugees, especially the Russian-speaking population, to other regions of Russia.

Crimean region The population of Crimea is over 2 million people. The average density exceeds 78 people. /km. There is an intensive population decline. 1990 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 Natural increase (decrease) of population (thousand people) 6, 6 -12, 8 -10, 9 -11, 8 -11, 7 -13, 6 Population distributed by territory unevenly. 50% of the republic's population lives on the coast. 69% live in cities, 31% of the population lives in rural areas. 43% of the population of Crimea lives in four large cities: Sevastopol (365.8 thousand people according to the 2001 census), Simferopol (364 thousand people), Kerch (157.2 thousand people), Evpatoria (122 thousand . people). National composition: 58.3% Russians, 24.3% Ukrainians, 12.1% Crimean Tatars, 1.4% Belarusians, 0.5% Tatars, 0.4% Armenians, 0.2% Jews, Poles, Moldovans each , Azerbaijanis, 0.1% each of Uzbeks, Koreans, Greeks, Germans, Mordovians, Chuvash, Gypsies, Bulgarians, Georgians and Mari, as well as Karaites, Krymchaks and others

Specialization of economic sectors The North Caucasus is an agro-industrial region of the Russian Federation. Produces 20% of all Russian agricultural products. Industry accounts for 8% of all Russian industry. The leading industries of market specialization are: gas, oil, coal, non-ferrous metallurgy, various mechanical engineering, cement and food industries. It has a significant share in Russia in the production of grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, vegetables, fruits, grapes and livestock products. The resort recreational complex is of national importance. The North Caucasus is the richest region in Russia in terms of recreational resources, on the basis of which a wide network of resorts, tourist centers, sports and recreational facilities has been created: Caucasian Mineralnye Vody, Sochi-Matsesta, Nalchik, Yeisk, Goryachiy Klyuch, Teberda, Dombay, etc.

Crimea One of the leading places in the production of consumer goods belongs to the light industry, among which the clothing industry stands out. The light industry of Crimea is complemented by mechanical engineering enterprises that produce complex household appliances. Among the branches of the food industry, the fruit and vegetable and fruit and vegetable canning industries stand out. Agricultural land accounts for about 70% of the area of ​​Crimea. The main industries are crop production, especially horticulture and viticulture, livestock breeding (especially sheep breeding and fishing), sericulture and beekeeping. The Crimean electric power industry, using mainly natural gas, cannot meet its needs. Therefore, the republic receives the missing electricity from the Ukrainian energy system. Mechanical engineering and metalworking account for about a third of total industrial production. One of the largest branches of mechanical engineering in Crimea is shipbuilding.

The recreational sector of Crimea occupies a very important place and has 800 health resorts, 40% of which operate year-round. Relies on a powerful resource base: beaches (length is 517 km), mineral waters (flow rate - 30 thousand m 2 / day); therapeutic mud (reserves - 24 million m2); sea, sea and forest air, climate; landscapes. Health resorts account for 70% of all places in the recreational network, preventive treatment (sanatoriums) - 30% of places. Sanatoriums are concentrated mainly on the southern coast of Crimea and in Yevpatoria, which specializes in the treatment of children; the share of places in children's sanatoriums in Evpatoria is 73% of the total capacity of sanatoriums in the resort.

Crimean Tatars Crimean Tatars or Crimeans are a people living in Crimea. They speak the Crimean Tatar language, which belongs to the Turkic group of languages. There are 3 dialects: northern (steppe), middle and southern (in accordance with the past settlement of the Crimean Tatars); the latter was strongly influenced by the Turkish language. Today, about 270 thousand Crimean Tatars live in Crimea, of which over 25 thousand live in Simferopol, over 33 thousand in the Simferopol region, or over 22% of the region’s population. In 1991, the second Kurultai was convened and a system of national self-government of the Crimean Tatars was created. Every five years, elections of the Kurultai (national parliament) take place, in which the entire adult Crimean Tatar population participates; the Kurultai forms an executive body - the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People (similar to a national government). Since 1991, Mustafa Dzhemilev has been the permanent chairman of the Mejlis. The vast majority of Crimean Tatars are Sunni Muslims. Historically, the Islamization of the Crimean Tatars occurred in parallel with the formation of the ethnos itself and was very long-lasting. The Crimean Tatar people consist of three sub-ethnic groups: steppe people or Nogais, highlanders or Tats and South Coast or Yalyboys.

South Coast Residents - Yalyboylu Before the deportation, South Coast residents lived on the Southern Coast of Crimea - a narrow strip 2-6 km wide, stretching along the sea coast from Balakalava in the west to Feodosia in the east. Residents of many villages on the South Coast, until deportation, retained elements of Christian rituals that they inherited from their Greek ancestors. Racially, the South Coast residents belong to the South European race and are similar in appearance to the Turks, Greeks, and Italians. However, there are individual representatives of this group with pronounced features of the Northern European race (fair skin, blond hair, blue eyes). Steppe people - Nogai lived in the steppe north of the conventional Nikolaevka line. Gvardeiskoe-Feodosiya. The main participants in the ethnogenesis of this group were the Western Kipchaks (Cumans), Eastern Kipchaks and Nogais. Racially, the Nogai are Caucasians with Mongoloid elements. The Nogai dialect belongs to the Kipchak group of Turkic languages, combining the features of the Kipchak-Oguz languages ​​(Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk) and the Kipchak-Nogai languages ​​(Nogai, Kazakh). Mountaineers - Tats lived before deportation in the mountains and foothills or middle zone, that is, north of the South Coast people and south of the steppe people. The ethnogenesis of the Tats is a very complex and not fully understood process. Almost all the peoples and tribes that ever lived in Crimea took part in the formation of this subethnic group. These are the Taurians, Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans, Goths, Greeks, Circassians, Bulgars, Khazars, Pechenegs and Western Kipchaks. Racially, the Tats belong to the Central European race, that is, they are similar in appearance to representatives of the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe (Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Germans, etc.). The Tat dialect has both Kypchak and Oguz features and is to some extent intermediate between the dialects of the South Coast and the steppe people. The modern Crimean Tatar literary language is based on this dialect

As you know, clothing reveals the centuries-old experience of a people, its economic and cultural level and way of life, its aesthetic concepts and skills of adaptation to the conditions of its physical and geographical environment. The clothing of the Crimean Tatars was made from wool, leather, homespun and imported fabrics. Women's clothing. Crimean Tatar women took special care in decorating their heads. They wore a velvet, usually burgundy-colored cap (fes), embroidered with gold or silver, sometimes decorated with small coins and covered with a round gold-colored plate with patterns. The women's clothing had a lot in common. These were wide and long, below the knees, cotton or canvas shirts (ketenkolmek), long dresses (anter) with wide sleeves, colored bloomers (shalwar or duman, don), reaching to the foot and tied around the ankle with a cord. The outer clothing of a Crimean Tatar woman is a caftan, tightly fitting the entire body, usually bright, most often pink or crimson in color, with gold or silver braid on the collar and chest. This caftan, with a full-length slit in the front, has narrow sleeves and is fastened at the hands with several buttons, and is constantly sewn with cotton wool in order to give fullness to the waist. A bib is sewn onto the chest, starting from the neck to the waist, and sometimes below, on which small and then larger and larger gold coins are densely strung on top.

Men's clothing. The Crimean Tatars cover their heads with a low black lambskin cap, on the bottom of which a crescent is sometimes embroidered. In summer they wear a red skullcap (taqiye) or a fez (fez). A shirt with an oblique collar (kolmek) was tucked into wide cloth trousers and belted with a long and wide woolen sash, usually red or green. Over the shirt they wore a short sleeveless vest made of velvet, sometimes embroidered with gold. Over this sleeveless jacket, another jacket with short or long sleeves (camisole) is put on, and on top of that a long caftan (chekmen) is put on. In winter, instead of caftans, they wore sheepskin sheepskin coats (ton) or sheepskin jackets (kurk). On their feet, men also wore boots (chizma), always with horseshoes on the heels, and leather shoes without tops with heels (potyuk). Shepherds (choban) had jackets made of lamb skin (kurk, kyysk'a ton) with a sash to which a knife (pychak) and a bag (chanta) were attached. Pilgrims who have visited Mecca (adjy) wear a turban (saryk) wrapped around a fez or cap.

Ingush People in Russia (215.1 thousand people), including in Ingushetia and Chechnya (163.8 thousand), in North Ossetia (32.8 thousand), etc. Smaller groups live in Kazakhstan (20 thousand . people), Central Asia, and also in the Middle East. The total number is more than 237 thousand people. Together with the Chechens, they belong to the indigenous population of the North Caucasus. They speak the Ingush language of the Nakh-Dagestan group of the North Caucasian family. The Russian language is also widespread. In the economy of the population of mountainous Ingushetia, the leading place was occupied by alpine cattle breeding (sheep, cows, horses, oxen), combined with agriculture (barley, oats, wheat); on the plain, the leading crop was corn. The leading branches of agriculture in the 20th century were horticulture and viticulture, fine-wool sheep breeding and meat and dairy farming. In the industrial activity of the Ingush, a significant place was occupied by construction (towers, temples and sanctuaries, above-ground crypt tombs). Jewelry, weapons, blacksmithing, pottery, clothmaking, stone, wood, and leather processing were developed.

Traditional Ingush clothing of the pan-Caucasian type. An untucked men's shirt with a collar on the front buttons, tied with a belt, a beshmet close to the waist with a belt and a dagger. Warm clothes - sheepskin coat and burka. The main headdress is a cone-shaped papakha and felt hats. In the 20s of the 20th century, caps appeared, and somewhat later - tall hats that flared upward. Casual women's clothing: long shirt dress with a cut collar with a button, wide pants, beshmet. Everyday headwear - scarves and shawls. The traditional food of the Ingush is mainly meat, dairy and vegetable. The most common: churek with sauce, corn flour dumplings, wheat flour crumpets, cheese pies, meat with dumplings, meat broth, dairy products (specific “data-kodor” - cottage cheese with melted butter), etc. The diet included hunting and fishing products. Traditional beliefs: totemism, animism, magic, family-tribal cult of shrines and patrons, agrarian and funeral cults

Lezgins One of the largest peoples of Dagestan. A significant number of Lezgins also live in the north of modern Azerbaijan, as well as in Kyrgyzstan. Self-name: Lezgi. Number: in Russia 411.5 thousand (according to the 2002 census), of which in Dagestan 336.7 thousand (13.1% of the population of the republic). about 200 thousand in Azerbaijan. Language: Lezgin (North Caucasian language family, Nakh-Dagestan group of languages) Lezgins are one of the indigenous peoples of Dagestan. The ancestors of modern Lezgins were numerous tribes that lived in the Eastern Caucasus, in the state of Caucasian Albania. Writing among modern Lezgins has existed since the mid-19th century, initially on the basis of Arabic script, then, since the 1920s, on the basis of the Latin alphabet, which, in turn, was replaced by Cyrillic script in 1938. Until the 19th century, the Lezgins did not form a single political entity. They were predominantly part of small associations of independent rural communities - “free societies”, and some were part of feudal formations on the territory of Dagestan and modern Azerbaijan (Kuba, Kazikumukh and other khanates). Until the 50s of the 20th century, one of several officially listed nationalities of Dagestan. Lezgins are the most numerous people in the Lezgin subgroup of the Dagestan language group, which also includes related Dagestan peoples - Tabasarans, Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs, as well as small nationalities of northern Azerbaijan - Udins, Budugts, Kryzy. By religion, Lezgins are Sunni Muslims

Adygs Autochthonous ethnic group of the North Caucasus region. By religious affiliation they are Sunni Muslims. The Adyghe language belongs to the Abkhaz-Adyghe branch of the North Caucasian family of languages. There are no more or less reliable sources on the number of Circassians in the last century, but there is information that in 1867, after the resettlement of a significant part of the highlanders to Turkey, over 75 thousand of them remained in the Kuban region. According to the 1989 census, 116,067 representatives of this ethnic group live in the Krasnodar Territory, including the Adygea Autonomous Region. Adyghe settlements are called auls, houses are called sakli. The house has male and female halves. A man can enter the women's room, but a woman cannot enter the men's room. Previously, in Adyghe families there was a ritual of avoidance. It was that during the day the husband and wife should not see each other. The rituals of the life cycle are very unique: maternity, funeral, wedding. One of the most striking genres of Circassian folk culture is the heroic epic of the Nartas. Its seven-volume edition contains 705 song and prose texts with variants. In the past, the performers of Nart legends were dzheguako - folk storytellers who enjoyed great authority and respect among the mountaineers. A unique genre of songs are khokhs - solemn greetings in connection with one or another important event and gybza - lament songs.

Chechens There is a legend: when God was dividing the land between peoples, the highlanders held a feast in his honor and therefore were late for the start. Then God gave them the land that he left for himself - the Caucasus. Since then, in the Caucasus mountains, where, according to legend, Prometheus was chained to a rock, a people known as Chechens lived and still lives. The oldest mention of the self-name - Nokhchi, which retained the vowel “a” during transmission, allows us to translate this term from the Vainakh word “nakh” - people, people

The national clothing of the Chechens reflects both the way of life of the nation and aesthetic principles. The traditional costume was made from local materials. Sheepskins were used for hats and fur coats, cattle leather was used for shoes, wool was processed into felt and cloth for making clothes. The main details of a men's suit were a beshmet and trousers. The beshmet, a type of semi-caftan, tightly fitted the figure, fastening to the waist with buttons, knots and loops made from lace. It had a high stand-up collar and long sleeves tapering towards the wrist, fastened with the same buttons. Below the waist, the beshmet widened, emphasizing the slimness of the figure. The length of the beshmet was 8-10 cm above the knees. The pants tapered slightly at the bottom and were tucked into warm cloth stockings that covered the leg from foot to knee. They were tied with straps under the knees. This clothing, combined with light soft shoes made of morocco or rawhide, fully met the living conditions of a warrior, shepherd, and hunter. The festive men's costume included a Circassian coat, which was worn over a beshmet and made from the best types of cloth.

Women's clothing usually emphasized age and social differences. All Chechen women in the 19th century wore a tunic-type shirt with a slit on the chest and a small stand-up collar fastened with a button. The shirt, made of cotton or silk, reached to the ankles. Long straight sleeves covered the wrist, and in festive shirts sometimes went down to the floor. Wide trousers were worn under the shirt, gathered into a frill at the bottom. The bottom of the legs of a festive costume was lined with silk. A dress was worn over the shirt - swinging to the floor, without a collar, with an open chest and a fastener at the waist. The sleeve of the dress was cut almost to the shoulder, went down below the hand and curved at the bottom. Under the dress over the shirt they wore a short, tight-fitting caftan with narrow sleeves. Silver clasps were usually sewn onto the caftan as decoration - gilded, with turquoise or colored glass, engraved with niello or filigree. Another important decoration of women's clothing is the belt. It was worn over a dress. The headdress of a Chechen woman is a scarf. The girls folded it at an angle, held the ends under their chin and pinned it at the back.

Dagestanis The people living on the territory of modern Dagestan. Chechnya, insignificantly throughout Russia. Of particular interest are their customs of raising the younger generation, which are especially relevant in recent times. The traditions of the mountain peoples of Dagestan reflect the rich experience of educating younger generations in the spirit of peace, mutual respect and mutual assistance. This experience of ancestors is distinguished by the originality and originality of the factors and means of forming younger generations. One of the factors that contributed to the formation of a culture of mutual understanding, mutual respect, mutual assistance and interethnic communication is atalism. It took place in different forms. Some gave their children to be raised in the family of a relative from their own tukhum inside the village, others - in the family of a foreign tukhum. Traditional factors in the formation of spiritually related and favorable relationships between people include the dairy brotherhood, which the mountaineers of Dagestan often resorted to

Typical clothing is the burka. This is a cape with narrow shoulders, with a stake that widens downward. The burka is the ideal clothing for the rider, protecting both him and the horse from rain, snow, wind and heat. When spending the night in the field, the burka also served as a bedding and blanket. The headdress was a sheepskin hat, tailored by a papakha. On the road, a cap was usually worn over the hat. Dagestani men's clothing is characterized by dark colors. The traditional costume of the Dagestanis underwent many changes in the 20th century. But, it must be said that rural residents, especially the elderly, still remain faithful to their national dress.

The recreational opportunities of the Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country region really deserve only superlatives in assessing its recreational potential. It is characterized by an exceptionally high saturation of cognitive objects, both natural and cultural-historical. There are the most favorable conditions for health improvement and sports tourism. Almost the entire Black Sea coast is built up with sanatoriums, boarding houses, tourist centers and hotels - the density of recreational infrastructure is very high. All this predetermines the national and international significance of this region and allows it to successfully perform health-improving, educational, sports and therapeutic functions.

The Crimean Peninsula is one of the most wonderful places on Earth. It is often called a “world in miniature” or an “open-air museum”. The unique combination of various relief forms and climatic conditions in a small area gives Crimea a special uniqueness. There is everything that makes travelers so happy - soaring mountain peaks, mysterious caves, majestic canyons, waterfalls, and even mud volcanoes. The historical paths of many peoples, states and civilizations crossed on the peninsula, so its history is full of the most incredible events and unexpected turns. Traces of the presence of different peoples are everywhere on the Crimean land. Crimea is famous for its unique cultural monuments, numerous historical and architectural sights, interesting museums, palace and park ensembles... Today Crimea is, first of all, a large resort and tourist complex, a climatic resort. It is based on natural healing and health resources: a mild healing climate, a clean sea, wonderful beaches, healing mud from salt lakes, and mineral waters from underground springs. Recently, numerous health resorts, sanatoriums, and hotels have been reconstructed. About 5 million tourists and vacationers visit Crimea every year.

Tourist centers and resorts of Crimea Simferopol is the administrative, industrial, scientific, commercial and cultural center of Crimea. Located in the very center of the peninsula. Population is about 400 thousand people. Simferopol is the main transport gate of Crimea. From here the roads fan out across the peninsula: to Alupka, Yalta, Alushta, Sevastopol, Sudak, etc... You can get to the vacation spot by train, trolleybus, bus, minibus. Sevastopol is a large industrial, scientific and cultural center of Crimea, with a population of about 600 thousand people. This is a large port, the main base of the Ukrainian Naval Forces and the Russian Black Sea Fleet. This is a city of military glory and valor; it honorably bears the title “hero city”. Sevastopol is famous for its numerous museums, architectural monuments, and memorable places associated with the rich history of the city. In addition, Sevastopol is a very beautiful city. Sudak is a popular resort in the southeast of Crimea. The main attractions of the Sudak region are the medieval Genoese fortress, the New World botanical reserve, as well as the famous production of champagne and dessert wines.

Alushta is a large resort center on the southern coast of Crimea. Population – 40 thousand people. Resort Alushta has about 80 health resorts. There are beautiful sandy and pebble beaches and a mild, dry climate. Alupka is a small city on the southern coast of Crimea, the main attraction of which is the Alupka Palace - a museum - a monumental building surrounded by a park. The palace was built in the 19th century. Yalta is the most popular resort in Ukraine. Terrible weather conditions, the unique beauty of the landscapes, and many attractions have made Greater Yalta a world resort and tourist center. There are about 170 health resorts and dozens of recreation centers here. Yalta is famous for its winemaking. Bakhchisaray is a small town located in the foothills of the peninsula. The city and its surroundings are widely known for their archaeological, historical, architectural and natural attractions, the main of which is the magnificent Khan's Palace. Among others, we note “cave” cities and monasteries, the Grand Canyon of Crimea, and the astrophysical observatory. .

Black Sea coast of Russia From the Kerch Strait to the border with Abkhazia, along the Black Sea coast stretches the most popular area of ​​recreation, treatment and tourism in Russia - the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. The Caucasus coast is the only place in our country where a warm sea, picturesque palm trees and high mountains coexist. Therefore, here, on the narrow edge of the subtropical sea coast between the mountains and the sea, millions of people come here every year, thirsting for sea bathing, hot sun and southern beauty. Anapa, Gelendzhik, Tuapse, Sochi - these alluring names are always associated with health and the best vacation. The Black Sea coast of the Caucasus is the southern outpost of Russia. It is located at the same geographical latitude (43° -45° N) as the resorts of the Adriatic, Italian and French Riviera and its appearance in many ways resembles them. Administratively, this region includes the Tuapse and Gelendzhik districts of the Krasnodar Territory, the resort cities of Sochi and Anapa.

Sochi is a seaside, foothill, balneoclimatic resort in the humid subtropics. It occupies the Black Sea coastal strip of the Krasnodar Territory for 145 km. The Sochi resort includes Adlersky, Khostinsky, Central and Lazarevsky districts. The sea bathing season lasts more than five months a year, from the end of May to October, the sea water temperature reaches +26 +28 ° C in August. In the Sochi area, the sea never freezes, and the sea water temperature exceeds the air temperature for seven months (September-March). Gelendzhik is a climatic, seaside, balneological, foothill resort of the Mediterranean type. Includes resorts and resort areas - Arkhipo. Osipovka, Betta, Gelendzhik, Divnomorskoye, Dzhanhot, Kabardinka, Krinitsa. The climate is coastal with a combination of foothills and warm. The almost constant cloudlessness of the sky and the purity of the air make the sunlight especially bright. The swimming season begins in May and ends in October. The shoreline is narrow, rocky or pebble. The seabed is rocky and flat.

Novorossiysk is a city of Black Sea glory, a city of fighters and a city of workers. A large industrial center, the most important transport hub in the south of Russia. Located on the shore of Tsemes Bay, very convenient for sea vessels to enter. The largest oil harbor in Russia is located here. Lesnoy port is the largest in the world. Exports goods from 40 countries and accepts imports from 36. Tuapse - includes resorts and resort areas - Agoy, Gizel-Dere, Dzhubga, Lermontovo, Novomikhailovsky, Nebug, Olginka, Shepsi. The climate here is wonderful: subtropical, Mediterranean type, moderately humid, mountain slopes protect the coast from dry steppe winds. Anapa is a seaside, mud, foothill climatic resort of the Mediterranean type. Sea bathing, as well as air, sun, sea and sand baths, along with mud therapy and Semigorsk iodine-bromine, salt-alkaline mineral water, are the main therapeutic agents and give a good boost of energy. The natural and climatic conditions of the Anapa environs make it possible to grow the best medicinal grape varieties, rich in glucose, vitamins and mineral salts.

Caucasian Mineral Waters. In the vicinity of the Caucasian Mineral Waters there are many wonderful places that attract attention with the beauty of nature, climate, historical and natural monuments, and interesting tourist routes. People are drawn to these places by the proximity of mountain peaks, amazingly beautiful intermountain valleys with elegant vegetation, fresh alpine meadows, noisy azure-blue waterfalls, fast clear rivers, an abundance of mineral springs, exceptionally clean, always cool air, saturated with phytoncides, with the tart smell of resin. and pine needles. Of particular interest are places associated with the names of classics of Russian literature - M. Yu. Lermontov, A. S. Pushkin, L. N. Tolstoy, etc. Narzanov Valley - located 34 km south of Kislovodsk, in the foothills of the Rocky Range Greater Caucasus, in the valley of the Khasaut River, at an altitude of 1300 m. In the Narzan Valley there are 17 Narzan-type mineral water sources. Their water belongs to the carbonic acid bicarbonate-chloride sodium-calcium type with a mineralization of up to 3.3 g/l and a carbon dioxide content of up to 2.2 g/l. Water temperature 10.4 °C. The springs strongly carbonate with carbon dioxide; the water flow is colored rusty with iron hydroxide. Favorable climatic conditions allow you to make hikes and excursions to the Narzan Valley at almost any time of the year.

Dombay is a climatic recreational area located in a mountain basin at the foot of the northern slope of the Main, or Watershed, ridge of the Greater Caucasus, at an altitude of 1600 m above sea level, 115 km south of the Dzheguta railway station and 26 km south of the Teberda resort. Dombayskaya Polyana is located on the territory of the Teberdinsky Nature Reserve. Dombay is called the “heart of the mountains”. It is surrounded by mountains covered with coniferous forests, mainly fir. Dark coniferous forests and emerald green alpine meadows, wild rivers, waterfalls, eternal snow and glaciers create the unique beauty of this area. Mountains surround the Dombay glade on all sides. Mineral waters brought to the surface by drilling are a natural healing factor. Dombay is the center of tourism and mountaineering in the Caucasus. The tourist base has been operating since 1925. For skiers and vacationers, a double-chair ropeway with a length of almost 1900 m, as well as two rope towing ropeways, have been laid along the slope of Mount Mussa-Achitara (Insidious Range). There is a ski station and a hotel on Mount Mussa-Achitara. In the Alibek River gorge, at the foot of the glacier, there is the Alibek ski resort.

Arkhyz is a climatic resort and recreational area located in the valley of the Bolshoi Zelenchuk River (a tributary of the Kuban), at an altitude of 1450 m in the Arkhyz section of the Teberda Nature Reserve. The area is picturesque, surrounded by high and steep mountain ranges. The region is heavily dissected by a dense network of rivers. In the vicinity of Arkhyz there are about 60 mountain lakes that are distinguished by their rare beauty. The Sofia Glacier leaves an unforgettable impression, from under which 12 waterfalls fall from a height of 120 m. Arkhyz is the starting point for many tourist routes: to the valleys of the rivers Sofia, Kizgych, Arkhyz, to the Devil's Mill tract, to the lakes of Sofia, Arkasara, to waterfalls through the passes of the Main Caucasus Range, to Teberda, Dombay and other areas of the Western and Central Caucasus . Climatic conditions, abundance of snow, and relief are favorable for the development of skiing in the Arkhyz region. Teberda is located at an altitude of 1260 -1300 m above sea level, in the valley of the Teberda River. Teberda is known as a resort town and a place of active tourism. The Teberlinskaya tourist base is the starting point for tourist routes not only passing through the territory of the Teberdinsky Nature Reserve, but also leading beyond its borders. The Teberda River basin is the territory of a state reserve, organized in 1936. There are 85 glaciers here.

Baksan Gorge is a famous gorge in the Central Caucasus, leading to the foot of Mount Elbrus. The path to this gorge first passes through the lightly forested areas of the Pastbishchny and Skalisty ridges through the villages of Zhankhoteko and Lashkuty, after which the landscape becomes especially attractive. On one side, steep gray and whitish-yellow limestone walls hang, on the other, the Baksan River roars under the cliff. In the Elbrus region there are comfortable multi-storey hotels “Itkol” and “Cheget”. "Azau". The most accessible, picturesque and frequently visited gorges are Adyl-Su and Shkhelda. The picturesque mountain peaks of these gorges are covered with snow and attract with their beauty. In the Baksan Gorge the forest stretches to the Azau clearing (2300 m). The upper reaches of the Baksan Gorge are surrounded from the north-west and south by a ridge of snowy mountains from which numerous glaciers slide down. A large tourist center has been built in the village of Terskol. From the Azau clearing you can take a pendulum passenger cable car up to Stary Krugozor (2960 m), to the Mir station (3500 m). Two chairlifts can take skiers to Cheget Peak. The upper station "Cheget-11" is located at an altitude of 3100 m.

Problems and prospects for the development of the region The main problem of the development of the region is its adaptation to work after the collapse of the USSR. Because after that, funding for many recreational infrastructure enterprises stopped. Over the past years, buildings, structures and buildings have become dilapidated and require repair and reconstruction. The region has a well-developed infrastructure for seaside recreation, but the quality of services provided needs to be improved. There are huge natural resources for the development of alpine skiing, but the development of this area requires large investments. In general, the area has been and remains the most visited and favorite vacation spot for most Russians.

1. Physiographic characteristics of the Caucasus

2. Physiographic characteristics of Crimea

CAUCASUS

Geographical position

The Caucasus is part of the Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country, lying south of the Russian Plain. The Caucasus itself is located between the Caspian and Black Seas. The mountain systems of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and the foothill lowlands and elevated plains extend here. The Caucasus is separated from the Russian Plain by the Kuma-Manych depression. Russia owns only part of this physical-geographical country: the plains of the Ciscaucasia and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus (up to the Samur River); The state border runs along the watershed ridge. Only in the northwest we own the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (up to the Psou River). This region is called the North Caucasus, its area is about 300 thousand km2, its length from northwest to southeast is over 1000 km, in the perpendicular direction only 400 km. The North Caucasus lies between 41˚N. and 47˚N, at the junction of the temperate and subtropical zones. According to the characteristics of nature, three regions are distinguished here: the Greater Caucasus (mountain region); Western and Middle Ciscaucasia (foothill steppe region); Terek-Kuma Lowland (Eastern Ciscaucasia).

Geology and relief

Ciscaucasia lies on the Scythian Epihercynian Plate, which formed in the Paleozoic. The middle of the Caucasian belt formed into the Alpine folding. The oldest Precambrian deposits (gneisses, crystalline schists) are found in the axial part of the Main Range. At the beginning of the Paleozoic there was a continental regime in this territory. During the Hercynian stage of development, the entire Ciscaucasia and Greater Caucasus experienced a trough, the country was flooded by the sea, and then folding began, and volcanic-sedimentary strata with clayey shales and limestones were formed (up to 5-6 km). In the Mesozoic, tectonic movements intensified, and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus was a geosyncline where sandy-clayey deposits up to 10-12 km thick accumulated. This was followed by transgression, which also covered the Scythian plate. The rise began in the Paleogene. During the Alpine cycle of tectogenesis, the orogenic stage in the development of the Caucasus and the formation of the Cis-Caucasian trough began. At the same time, along with the rise of mountains, denudation processes also occurred. In Quaternary times, the relief of the Greater Caucasus became younger. The total rise was 4-5 km, and the foothill depressions continued to sink. An anticlinal fold formed in the area of ​​the Stavropol Upland. In the Greater Caucasus, the Elbrus and Kazbek volcanoes have become active. Climate cooling led to the development of mountain glaciation, which took place in several stages and influenced the development of flora and fauna. The tectonic development of the Caucasus continues today; it is rising at a rate of 1-3 mm per year. The entire region is characterized by increased seismicity. Moreover, the foci of earthquakes are close to the surface.

Orographically, the country is divided into the Ciscaucasia and the Greater Caucasus. Ciscaucasia lies on the Scythian plate, along the northern border, which stretches (700 km) from the Sea of ​​Azov to the Caspian Sea. In relief it corresponds to the Kuma-Manych depression. The central part of the Ciscaucasia is occupied by the Stavropol Upland, the highest height of which in the southwest reaches 830 m. It is based on the Stavropol Arch, within which the depth of the foundation is from 0.5 to 2.5 km. To the west of the Stavropol Upland there is the Kuban-Azov lowland, at the base of which is the Azov-Kuban depression, with a foundation depth of up to 3 km. The eastern part of the Ciscaucasia is occupied by the Terek-Kuma Lowland, which is based on the depression of the same name; here the depth of the foundation is more than 6 km. This lowland is, in fact, the southwestern edge of the Caspian lowland. To the south of the Stavropol Upland there is the Mineralovodskaya (Pyatigorsk) group of island mountains - laccoliths. To the west and east of it lie marginal troughs, turning into anticlinal folds of the Tersky and Sunzhensky ridges, which are intermediate structures between the Ciscaucasia and the Greater Caucasus.

The Greater Caucasus is a huge mountain structure, about 1000 km long and 30 km wide near Novorossiysk to 180 km in Dagestan. This is a large asymmetric meganticlinorium. Its core contains Precambrian, Paleozoic and Triassic rocks. They are bordered by Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene strata. The Greater Caucasus is divided into three longitudinal belts (zones): the northern slope belt (a system of several parallel ridges); axial belt – Main (Vodorasdelny) and Lateral ridges; belt of the southern slope (lies outside Russia). Along the strike of the Caucasus, there are also transverse segments (segments): 1) The Central Caucasus is the highest, all the “five thousand meters” of Russia are located here (Elbrus - 5642 m, Dykhtau - 5204 m, Kazbek - 5033 m, etc.); 2) Western Caucasus - from Elbrus to Mount Fisht - decreases to the northwest, the highest point is Mount Dombay-Ulgen (4046 m); 3) Northwestern Caucasus - from Mount Fisht to the Taman Peninsula - this is a low-mountain Black Sea chain, its heights decrease from Mount Fisht (2868 m) to 500 m and to Novorossiysk; 4) Eastern Caucasus - lies east of Kazbek, a number of peaks exceed 4000m. The predominant type of relief in the mountains and in the Ciscaucasia is water erosion; here the depth of erosion is the greatest in Russia, on average 2000 m, and in the upper reaches of Teberda up to 3000 m. In the Ciscaucasia the processes of river accumulation and gully erosion dominate. The presence of cuesta ridges is associated with different stability of rocks. There is karst. The highlands are characterized by glacial landforms. In the mountains there are rockfalls and screes.

Climate and surface waters

The climate of the Caucasus is influenced by its geographical location in the southwest of Russia, on an isthmus between the seas, as well as by mountainous terrain. The Caucasus receives a large amount of solar radiation per year. The country lies at the junction of two climatic zones - temperate and subtropical. Only the Black Sea coast belongs to the subtropical zone in Russia. In winter, continental air of temperate latitudes spreads across the Ciscaucasia, with northern and eastern winds prevailing. Cold air stagnates on the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. Over the Black Sea, the pressure decreases and therefore cold air from the mountains rushes towards the sea (this is how the Novorossiysk bora sometimes occurs, at temperatures down to -15˚C). At an altitude of 1.5-2 km, western transport dominates. In winter, cyclones often hit the Caucasus from the Mediterranean Sea, which leads to thaws and avalanches in the mountains. When the foehn wind occurs, the temperature can rise at the foot of the mountains to +15˚C (on Elbrus up to -5˚C). Average January temperatures range from +2˚C in Novorossiysk to +6˚C in Sochi; in the mountains, with altitude the temperature drops to negative values ​​(in the highlands up to -15˚C). In the Ciscaucasia region in winter, average temperatures are also negative -2˚C-4˚C. The absolute minimum in the Ciscaucasia is -35˚C, and in Sochi -15˚C. In winter, the maximum precipitation falls on the Black Sea coast (Mediterranean type), while in the rest of the territory the maximum occurs in summer. In winter, snow cover is established on the plains and especially in the mountains. On the plains it appears towards the end of December, and the snow often melts off in winter. On the mountain slopes the thickness of the snow cover reaches 3 m. In summer, average air temperatures range from +22˚C on the Black Sea coast to +25˚C in the east of Ciscaucasia. In the mountains, the temperature drops and at an altitude of 2500 m is +10˚C (at Elbrus station, altitude 4250 m, temperature +1.5˚C). At the beginning of summer, cyclonic activity intensifies, and maximum precipitation occurs in July. Droughts occur in the second half of summer. The annual amount of precipitation decreases from west to east and increases from the foothills to the mountains. In the Ciscaucasia, the amount of precipitation varies from 700 mm in the Stavropol region to 350 mm in the east. On the Black Sea coast, precipitation quickly increases from 700 mm in Novorossiysk to 1600 mm in the Sochi region. In the highlands of the western Caucasus, up to 2000-3000 mm of precipitation falls annually (the maximum for Russia is the Achishkho station on the southwestern slope of the Greater Caucasus - over 3700 mm), in the eastern Caucasus 1000-1500 mm falls.

The river network is well developed. Almost all rivers originate in the mountains. The largest rivers: Kuban (length 900 km) and Terek (590 km). The Caspian basin belongs to: Terek, Kuma, Samur; Black Sea - Mzymta, Sochi; Azovsky - Kuban. These rivers are mountainous in nature, do not freeze in winter and carry a lot of suspended material (turbid). In the Ciscaucasia there are lowland rivers: Kalaus, Manych, Eya, Beisug, etc. Almost all rivers in the region experience high water in the summer. The food is glacial, snow and rain. There are not many lakes. Near the coast of the Caspian and Azov seas there are lagoon and estuary lakes. There are tarn lakes in the mountains; in the limestones of the cuesta ridges there are karst lakes. There are almost 1,500 glaciers in the Caucasus. The snow line lies in the western Caucasus at an altitude of about 3000 m, and in the eastern 3500-4000 m. The greatest glaciation in the Central Caucasus is the Elbrus glacier complex. The double-headed Elbrus is covered with a snow-ice cap with a diameter of about 10 km. The largest long glacier in the Caucasus is the Bezengi glacier (more than 17 km long). In the eastern Caucasus, due to the dry climate, glaciation is less developed.

Soils, flora and fauna

The plains of Ciscaucasia are characterized by zonality, and the mountains are characterized by altitudinal zonation. Moreover, the zonality here changes not in the sublatitudinal direction, but in the submerideonal direction, from Azov to the Caspian Sea, as the continental climate increases. On the plains of Western Ciscaucasia and Stavropol region, chernozem soils dominate, their humus horizon is 1.5 m, and the humus content is 5-8%. In the east of the Stavropol Upland, the soils become chestnut, and even further east - light chestnut, often solonetzic. There are solonetzes and solonchaks, especially in the Kuma-Manych depression. In the coastal part the soils are meadow-chestnut, in river deltas they are alluvial. In the mountains, soils change with altitude. At the foot of the mountains there are mountain black soils, in the east there are chestnut soils. They differ from plain soils in their high gravelly content. Higher in the mountains, brown soils and mountain-forest gray soils are developed, even higher - mountain-podzolic soils, further - mountain-meadow soils. On the Black Sea coast (southeast of Tuapse) the subtropical soils are yellow soils.

The country's vegetation cover is very diverse. It combines in its flora elements of European forests and steppes, Asian highlands and deserts; as well as elements of the Mediterranean flora. There are up to 550 endemic species, and there are many of them, especially in the mountains. The Western and Central Ciscaucasia is dominated by steppes, most of which are now plowed. The steppes of Ciscaucasia are a continuation of the steppes of the south of the Russian Plain, consisting of various types of feather grass; on the Stavropol Upland - turf-cereals (from fescue, feather grass, etc.). In the eastern Ciscaucasia, the steppes give way to semi-deserts with grass-wormwood vegetation, and in places with thickets of saltwort. Closer to the foothills, the steppe gives way to a forest-steppe of meadow herbs with areas of forests of oak, hornbeam, and ash; in the east there are thickets of thorny bushes such as freegana and shiblyak. As you ascend the mountains, forest vegetation begins; at the beginning there are broad-leaved forests, higher up there are coniferous forests; even higher are subalpine and alpine meadows. Thus, in the Caucasus Mountains the altitudinal zonation is most fully expressed. Moreover, the set of altitudinal zones is different in the western part of the mountains and in the eastern. In the west of the mountains, at the foot of the mountains, there are meadow steppes on chernozems; higher up, foothill forest-steppe begins on gray forest soils with oak, beech, hornbeam, and ash. Higher up, the forest-steppe gives way to mountain broad-leaved forests, on brown mountain forest soils, made of beech with an admixture of chestnut, hornbeam, and ash. In the undergrowth of these forests there are Colchis subtropical elements - evergreen shrubs and vines. As the height increases, fir and spruce are added to the beech. Even higher, the forest becomes purely coniferous, on mountain-podzolic soils, with an undergrowth of rhododendron and a herbaceous cover of northern elements (oxalis, oxalis, etc.). At the upper border of the forest there are birch-beech forests combined with tall grass meadows of umbrellas, bellflowers, blueberry bushes, etc. Even higher is a belt of subalpine meadows on mountain meadow soils, of geranium, columbine, delphinium, bellflowers and rhododendron bushes. This belt turns into alpine meadows of low-growing grasses and sedges, with brightly blooming gentian, buttercup, dandelion, forget-me-not, speedwell, primrose, saxifrage, etc. Above 3200 m there is a belt of snow and ice. In the east of the mountains, the climate is drier, so at the foot there are fescue-wormwood subshrubs on light chestnut soils. The first altitudinal zone here is wormwood-grass and fescue-feather grass dry steppes on mountain chestnut soils. Above is a belt of shiblyak and freegana (thorny bushes) on brown soils. The composition of shibliak includes: meadowsweet, buckthorn, ephedra, cotoneaster, serviceberry, juniper, hold-tree, barberry, etc. The composition of freegans includes sage, astragalus, scabiosis, etc. Above are mountain-meadow steppes on chernozem-like soils, mainly of cereals . Even higher are subalpine and alpine meadows (of cereals) turning at an altitude of 3600-4000 m into the glacial-nival belt (snow and ice). The southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus are characterized by the Colchian type of altitudinal zonation. The lower zone is represented here by relict Colchis broad-leaved forests with evergreen undergrowth on yellow soils. The basis of the forest is: chestnut, oak, beech, hornbeam; in the undergrowth - Pontic rhododendron, holly, cherry laurel, boxwood; a lot of vines. Higher up, yew, pine, oak, maple, linden, ash, and beech appear on brown soils. Above there is a mixed forest of beech and conifers, and even higher there is a dark coniferous belt of fir and spruce on mountain brown soils. Higher up are the subalpine and alpine meadows (of gravel, sedges, umbellifers and grasses) and above 3500 m snow and ice begin.

The fauna is very diverse; There are many endemics here: aurochs (stone goats), Caucasian hamster, Caucasian black grouse and snowcock, etc. The bison lives in the reserves. Typical steppe animals live in the steppes of Ciscaucasia: ground squirrel, jerboa, hamster, mole vole, brown hare, steppe ferret, fox, etc. In the east, semi-deserts are inhabited by: ground hare, hairy jerboa, gerbils, long-eared hedgehog, corsac fox, wolf, small vole; Saiga antelope is rare. There are many reptiles (steppe viper, boa constrictor, snakes, lizards, viper, etc.) Birds include steppe lark, quail, steppe harrier and eagle, kestrel, bustard, demoiselle crane. In the reed thickets of rivers one can find: wild boar, jackal, jungle cat, and many waterfowl and wading birds. The Greater Caucasus is inhabited mainly by forest and mountain species. These are deer, roe deer, wild boar, badger, squirrel, marten, dormouse, forest mice, forest cat. Birds include jays, finches, nuthatches, tits, woodpeckers, owls, black grouse, etc. The highlands are inhabited by aurochs, chamois, Promethean mice, voles, and leopards. Birds include snowcock, lark, snow finch, eagles, etc.

In the Caucasus there are 4 nature reserves (Teberdinsky, etc.) and 3 national parks (Sochinsky, etc.).

CRIMEA (Crimean Peninsula)

The Crimean Peninsula is located south of the Russian Plain and is washed by the Black and Azov Seas. Its area is 26 thousand square meters. km. Crimea is connected to the Russian Plain in the north by the narrow (8 km) Perekop Isthmus. Crimea has two peninsulas: in the west - Tarkhankutsky, in the east - Kerch, which is separated from the Russian mainland by the strait of the same name. In the northeast, Crimea is washed by the Sivash Bay, and in the northwest by the Karkinitsky Bay. The extreme southern point of Crimea reaches 44 degrees north latitude.

Crimea is divided into three physical-geographical regions: Steppe Crimea, Mountain Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula.

The mountainous Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula belong to the Alpine folding, and the Steppe Crimea belongs to the Scythian plate of the Paleozoic folding. The Crimean Mountains are structurally an anticlinal uplift consisting of clayey shales, Mesozoic sandstones and Permian limestones. In places there are effusive rocks. The steppe Crimea is composed of Neogene marine and Quaternary continental sediments.

The Crimean mountains consist of the main ridge - Yayla ("yayla" is translated as "summer pasture") and two cuesta ridges, gently sloping to the north of the main ridge. In the west, Yayla is a ridge with a plateau-like surface: Ai-Petrinskaya and Yalta Yayla. In the east, Yayla splits into a number of massifs: Chatyrdag, Dolgorukovskaya Yayla, etc. The maximum height of the Crimean Mountains reaches 1545 m (Roman-Kosh town). The peaks of Yayla, with an average height of about 1000 m, are highly leveled, as they are composed of Jurassic limestone, while the slopes are quite steep, especially along the southern coast of Crimea. Open karst is widespread in the mountains. In some places there are tar fields. The plateau is cut by canyons.

Along the southern coast there is developed erosional relief, represented by landslides and chaos - collapsed limestone blocks. The southern coast of Crimea is characterized by volcanic formations - laccoliths (Mt. Ayudag - “Bear Mountain”). The northern slope of Yayla is flatter and has a height of 500 - 750 m.

The relief of the Kerch Peninsula is hilly. The steppe Crimea is a flat plain, in some places with salt lakes. The climatic conditions of the Crimean peninsula have features of a transitional climate from temperate to subtropical Mediterranean. The most pronounced subtropical climate is on the southern coast and in the foothills of Yayla. The annual rainfall here is about 600 mm, and most of it occurs in winter, when Mediterranean cyclones dominate. The average air temperature in January is +4° C, snow rarely falls. The average temperature in July is about +24° C. Five months a year the average daily air temperature is above +15° C. The climate of the Steppe Crimea is more consistent with a temperate continental one, although the winter is very mild, with an average January temperature of about 0° C. Average temperatures in summer are + 23 ... +25° C. Annual precipitation is 250-300 mm, and most of it falls in winter. Summer is characterized by drought. Similar climatic conditions persist on the Kerch Peninsula.

The Crimean Peninsula is not rich in inland waters. There are no large rivers. In the Steppe Crimea, the most significant are the Salgir and Alma rivers. Powered by groundwater, rain and melt water from the mountains. In summer, most rivers dry up. The rivers of the southern coast of Crimea are mountainous in nature and are distinguished by their short length, but somewhat higher water content. Their regime is flood. Almost all lakes are salty, the largest lake being Sasyk.

The soils in the Steppe Crimea are chestnut, and in some places there are southern black soils. Salinization is typical. The vegetation is mainly represented by dry steppes (fescue, feather grass, tonkonog, wormwood, solyanka); off the coast of Sivash Bay, the steppes turn into semi-desert.

Completely different soil and vegetation cover of the Crimean Mountains and the Black Sea coast. The soils here are predominantly brown, and on the moist slopes of the mountains - red earth, turning higher into mountain forest brown. Mountain chernozem-like soils are developed on the upper plateaus of Yayla. The flora of this region is distinguished by its richness of species (1,500 plant species). On the coast and up to an altitude of 300 m there is forest vegetation with elements of the Mediterranean flora: fluffy oak, strawberry tree, pistachios, tree-like juniper, butcher's broom, boxwood, vines - ivy, clematis, etc. To the east the forest turns into thickets of xerophytic shrubs (shiblik) from hornbeam, sessile oak, pine tree, hawthorn, dogwood, blackthorn, tamarisk and xerophytic grasses. Above 300 m, the appearance of the forest changes, subtropical species disappear, deciduous broad-leaved species begin to dominate: beech, hornbeam, oak, ash, maple, linden, elm, wild apple and pear, poplar, willow, alder and conifers - Crimean pine - appear even higher. yew, juniper. The upper border of the forest reaches a height of 900 m. On the upper Yayly plateau there are mountain meadows on chernozem-like soils. Grains grow: fescue, feather grass, tonkonogo, brome, as well as Crimean edelweiss, violet, semolina, clover, bedstraw, mantle, etc.

Currently, natural vegetation in a large area has been replaced by cultivated vegetation and imported from other regions: cypress, laurel, cherry laurel, magnolia, eucalyptus, fan palm, holly, silk acacia (mimosa), etc. The fauna in the Crimean steppes is represented mainly by rodents (gophers , hamsters, jerboas, mouse-like rodents) and reptiles (lizards, snakes, Crimean gecko, etc.), as well as invertebrates and steppe bird species. The forests of the mountainous Crimea are inhabited by: squirrels, dormouse, bats, predators - fox, marten, badger, ungulates - wild boar, roe deer, and in some areas red deer are still preserved. There are many birds in the forests - mainly European forest species. The world of invertebrates is quite diverse.

According to the Information Resistance group, after the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula to the Russian Federation, Vladimir Putin handed the peninsula over to the Caucasian criminals. Journalists from the “Ukrainian News” section of the “Stock Leader” publication learned more about this.

“Information resistance” indicates a surge in crime in two regions of the Crimean peninsula: Evpatoria and Saki. The rampant crime of visiting criminals in these areas is reminiscent of the “dashing 90s.”

It is worth recalling that both Evpatoria and Saki are famous resorts with long-standing traditions. Evpatoria is considered an ideal place for families with children, and Saki is famous for its healing mud and sanatoriums. Now parents no longer dare to go on vacation with their children to the region, which has recently been filled with immigrants from Dagestan and Chechnya.

According to representatives of the IP, in these areas there is an active seizure of real estate and business, in which raider methods are used. Visiting Caucasians demand that the most profitable property be divided according to the “50/50” principle. By demanding half of the property, the visiting bandits seem to be putting into practice the well-known slogan “Crimea is ours.”

The once calm, sometimes even sleepy Crimean resort towns are becoming unsafe. Here, people from the Caucasus also already feel like full-fledged owners: a trip to a cafe or restaurant can end badly for the average person, since bandits are having fun there in the spirit of the 90s.

Local residents note with sad irony that soon Caucasians will start shooting into the air with machine guns at their special events, as is already happening in Moscow.

Based on the above, the conclusion suggests itself: Vladimir Putin simply handed over the Crimean Peninsula to the Caucasian bandits. Thus, the Russian leader can pursue several goals. For example, this is exactly how Putin is trying to rein in the local criminals, who in one way or another control financial flows and business on the peninsula - by placing already established criminal schemes under the control of the Chechens and Dagestanis. Such a generous gift to the Caucasians can be explained as an attempt to intimidate the Tatar population of Crimea.

After the appointment of businessman from Chechnya Ruslan Baysarov as “responsible for Crimean resorts and sanatoriums,” it became obvious that the Russian leader intends to place a special emphasis on Caucasians in Crimea in the matter of control over the peninsula. Reports have already begun to appear in the media about the principles of Baysarov’s work in the Crimea. Allegedly, he blackmails Ukrainian entrepreneurs using the “quarters” principle, when the owner remains only 25 percent of his entire business, and the remaining 75 percent comes under the control of Baysarov. If the owner refuses to accept the proposed conditions, then he may lose his business altogether.

Crimeans who have not accepted Russian citizenship are being forced out of the peninsula.

According to the IS, in Crimea they have turned the process of “renunciation of Russian citizenship” into a mechanism through which residents of the peninsula who are not loyal to Moscow are identified and persecuted. The refusal procedure itself has been complicated to the limit: in order to refuse to accept Russian citizenship, it is necessary to stand in long lines at the Federal Migration Service of the Russian Federation, sometimes this can take a week.

At the same time, Crimeans who do not want to become citizens of the Russian Federation are visited by representatives of the “Crimean self-defense” who persistently recommend that these people leave the territory of the peninsula. Such demands are accompanied by threats of physical violence. According to representatives of Information Resistance, they recorded similar facts in Sudak and Simferopol.

It is obvious that these provocations are organized with the help of representatives of the Federal Migration Service, which transmit lists of “unreliable” citizens to local bandits. It is also worth noting that the forced provision of Russian citizenship to residents of Crimea is a gross violation of Ukrainian legislation and international law.

Crimeans are being starved.

Following an order from Rospotrebnadzor, the import of a number of Ukrainian products into the territory of Crimea was prohibited. Since May 17, a difficult food situation has developed on the peninsula.

Trucks carrying Ukrainian products were not allowed to enter the peninsula by Russian checkpoints, which explained the ban on entry by order of Rospotrebnadzor. The result of such actions was the disappearance of Ukrainian dairy products from Crimean shelves. Ukrainian suppliers were explained that if they subsequently want to supply their products to Crimea, then the supply of each type of product will need to obtain appropriate permission from the Crimean branch of Rospotrebnadzor.

Note that the share of Ukrainian dairy products on the shelves of the Crimean Peninsula before the ban was introduced was about 90 percent of the total volume of these products.

Representatives of Rospotrebnadzor confirmed the introduction of a ban on the import of certain types of products into Crimea. According to them, a decree has already been issued according to which most of the restrictions have been lifted, but the import of pork, including lard and offal, into Crimea is still prohibited. This decision is due to the fact that these products are not subjected to heat treatment at a temperature of +72 degrees Celsius.

This train schedule on the route Kavkazskaya - Krymskaya is for informational purposes only and does not contain operational changes related to repair work and other circumstances. When planning a trip, it is recommended to check the schedule at the station information desk.

About the train schedule Kavkazskaya - Krymskaya

Currently, the Kavkazskaya Krymskaya train schedule consists of 2 flights: direct trains - 0, passing trains - 2. These are flights 377Я, 677С - the fastest of them is 377Я Moscow-Paveletskaya Novorossiysk, which covers the distance along the Kavkazskaya Krymskaya route in 0 d 5 h 36 min, the slowest train is 677С Vladikavkaz Novorossiysk, departing at 22:55. The number of stops on the Kavkazskaya Krymskaya route ranges from 7 to 8 depending on the train schedule and averages 7. Along the route, the train makes stops in accordance with the schedule on average every 51 minutes. Trains depart from Kavkazskaya station in the first half of the day at 02:39 and in the afternoon at 22:55. All trains leave from Kavkazskaya stations and arrive at Krymskaya stations.

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Ministry of Agriculture

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education

RUSSIAN STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY - Moscow Agricultural Academy named after K.A.TIMIRYAZEV

Faculty: Soil Science, Agrochemistry and Ecology

Department: Soil Science, Geology and Landscape Science

Course work

On the topic: Landscape characteristics of the Crimean-Caucasian mountain side

Completed by: 1st year student

Faculty of PAE

Groups No. 107

Galyukov O.P.

Checked by: Associate Professor Efimov O.E.

Physiographic zoning

Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country

Greater Caucasus region

Region of Colchis Lowland

Region of the Lesser Caucasus (XXI!)

Hyrkan region

Physiographic zoning

geographical Caucasus relief tectonic

As can be seen from all of the above, the main territorial units of the Caucasus - Western and Middle Ciscaucasia, Terek-Kuma Lowland, Greater Caucasus, Colchis Lowland, Kura Depression, Lenkoran Lowland and Talysh Mountains, Lesser Caucasus, Javakheti-Armenian Highlands - differ from each other across the entire range of natural features. In the following, they are considered as the main physiographic regions.

Western and Middle Ciscaucasia (see diagram) form a steppe foothill-zonal region, merging with the steppe zone of the Russian Plain. The Terek-Kuma Lowland is part of the semi-deserts of the Caspian Lowland, its special province. The Greater Caucasus is a mountainous physical-geographical region, which includes seven provinces. The Colchis Lowland and the Kura Depression are provinces of subtropical intermontane lowlands and depressions of Transcaucasia. The Lenkoran Lowland and the Talysh Mountains form a sub-province that is part of the western province of the Hyrkan region, the main part of which is located in Northern Iran. The Lesser Caucasus is a mountainous region with western and eastern parts of different nature, constituting special provinces. The Javakheti-Armenian Plateau is the northeastern province of the Armenian Plateau, one of the vast continental highlands of Western Asia.

In the Caucasus Mountains, natural conditions change in accordance with the law of altitudinal zonation. Its structure is different in different parts of the mountains, which is taken into account when zoning them.

Scheme of physical-geographical zoning of the Caucasus. Provinces of the mountainous region of the Greater Caucasus: 1 - North Caucasus; 2 - Dagestan; 3 - Western highland; 4 - Eastern highland; 5 - North Black Sea; 6 - Colchis mountain; 7 - Kakheti-Sheki. Girkan region 8 - Talysh-Lenkoran subprovince. Provinces of the Lesser Caucasus. 9 -- Adzharo-Trialetskaya; 10 -- Somkhet-Karabakh

Within the Caucasus, three regions are clearly distinguished by their natural characteristics: the Greater Caucasus, the Western and Middle Ciscaucasia (together) and the Terek-Kuma Lowland. According to N.A. Gvozdetsky (1953-1986), the first two correspond to physical-geographical regions, and the Greater Caucasus is a mountainous region, which includes seven provinces.

The Greater Caucasus is a majestic mountain structure. Its width ranges from 32 km near Novorossiysk to 180 km on the Elbrus meridian and 160 km in Dagestan. The Greater Caucasus is a large asymmetric meganticlinorium. The anticlinal structure is the most characteristic geological feature of the Caucasus. At its core, in the western and central parts of the mountain structure, Precambrian, Paleozoic and Triassic rocks of the lower structural stage are exposed. Six of them are completely or partially located on the territory of Russia: North Caucasus, Dagestan, Western High Mountain, Eastern High Mountain, North Black Sea and Colchis mountain. Such a significant number of provinces in a relatively small area is due to differences in the structure of altitudinal zones and geological and geomorphological features of individual parts of the mountain structure.

TORoman-Caucasian mountainous country

The Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country includes the main part of the territory of the Caucasus, namely the folded mountain system of the Greater Caucasus, the Colchis and Kura intermountain depressions, occupied by accumulative plains and partly folded uplands and lowlands, the folded mountain system of the Lesser Caucasus and the Talysh Mountains. In the west, this country includes the Mountainous Crimea with the southern coast of Crimea.

The Greater Caucasus mountain system in the axial part rises above 4000-5000 m above level m. (Mount Elbrus - 5633 f, Dykhtau - 5203 f), Lesser Caucasus - above 2500 - 3500 f (Mount Gyamish - 3724 m), Talysh Mountains - almost up to 2500 g (Mount Kömyurkoy - 2477 g), Crimean Mountains - up to 1500 m(Mount Roman-Kosh - 1545). The plain of the Colchis Lowland in its main part lies at an altitude of up to 100 m, and the main plain of the Kura Depression, the Kura-Araks Lowland, is generally located up to the same height, with its middle and eastern parts falling below ocean level - up to -16 m at the confluence of the Kura and Araks and even lower near the coast of the Caspian Sea, the level of which is now at -28 f.

The territory of the Crimean-Caucasian country belongs to the Alpine geosynclinal region, i.e., to the region of the Alpine folding, or the Cenozoic folding of the Tethys, with the Greater Caucasus and Mountain Crimea belonging to the zone of its regional meganticlinoriums, and the structures of the Lesser Caucasus and Talysh Mountains to the internal zone folded structures of the Alpine geosynclinal region (according to M. V-Muratov), ​​the General plan of the orographic division of the country coincides well with the main features of its tectonic structure: the Greater Caucasus, the Lesser Caucasus in its main part (the middle and eastern segments of the mountain system) and the Mountainous Crimea on the tectonic are identified on the map as anticlinal zones (in the axial part of the western half of the Greater Caucasus, the ancient core of the meganticlinorium - its pre-Jurassic folded base - comes to the surface), and the Colchis and Kura intermountain depressions, in their most depressed parts, are like internal depressions.

Recent tectonic movements were intense everywhere, manifesting themselves in powerful uplifts of mountain ranges (including in the synclinal zones of the Adzhar-Trialeti folded system of the western part of the Lesser Caucasus, the Talysh Mountains, as well as some peripheral parts of the Greater Caucasus) and in the subsidence of depressions. The tectonic development of the territory continues to this day, as evidenced by the data of repeated geodetic leveling and seismic phenomena. The entire territory of the Caucasian part of the country belongs to 6-7 and in some places 8-point seismicity zones (Milanovsky and Hann, 1963). Crimea is also known for its destructive earthquakes. In areas with increased seismicity (7--8-point zones), anti-seismic construction methods are necessary.

The border between temperate and subtropical climate zones passes through the country. The temperate zone includes (mostly) high mountain provinces, the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus, and the main part of the Crimean Mountains. The subtropical zone includes the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus and the rest of Transcaucasia. The southern coast of Crimea can also be classified as the northeastern edge of the Mediterranean subtropical climate region. In the subtropical zone, as in the temperate zone, due to the pattern of altitudinal zonation, the climate in the mountains becomes cool, and in the highlands it becomes cold. But in the lowlands and foothills, the features of a subtropical nature are quite clearly manifested - humid subtropics (Colchis, the low mountains of Talysh and the Lenkoran lowland), dry and semi-dry (in the Kura region), Mediterranean with dry summers and rainy winters (northern part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, Southern coast of Crimea).

The typical subtropical climate of the low plains and foothills of Transcaucasia (Colchis, Kura-Araks lowland) is indicated by the two growing seasons observed here, which in Colchis, for example, determine the possibility of farming not only in the warm, but also in the cold season. In the lowlands and foothills of Transcaucasia, many heat-loving crops can be grown: tea, citrus fruits, tung, rice in the humid subtropics, cotton in the dry ones, and everywhere - grapes without shelter for the winter. Livestock is grazed on natural pastures throughout the year.

The complexity of the relief structure, sharp fluctuations in absolute altitudes, and different orientations of mountain ranges in relation to the mainly westerly air currents that bring moisture determine large contrasts in temperatures and the degree of moisture. The sum of temperatures above 10° per year varies from 4400° on the subtropical plains and in the foothills of Transcaucasia to 3500-2500° in the lower and middle tiers of the mountains and to 400° or less in the highlands. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the mountains of the western half of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus (according to observations in some places more than 2500 mm at and according to calculations up to 4000 mm in a year). More than 1600 and up to 2500 mm precipitation falls annually in the western extremity of the Lesser Caucasus (Batumi region) and the adjacent part of the Colchis Lowland. In the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, precipitation generally falls below 1500 mm at and in the middle and eastern regions of the Lesser Caucasus - less than 1200 mm. From 1200 to 1700 mm precipitation falls in the Lenkoran Lowland and the lower belt of the Talysh Mountains, up to 1200 mm - in the Crimean Mountains. The driest are the Kura-Araks Lowland and the Absheron Peninsula, receiving less than 300 mm precipitation per year, coastal strip of the northeast lowland and south of the Absheron Peninsula - less than 200 mm.

The amount of runoff almost everywhere increases with elevation in the mountains, with the exception of the Talysh Mountains, where the runoff decreases with altitude. In the flooded regions of the Caucasus, the runoff is higher than in the eastern ones. In the Crimean Mountains it has an average value. In the axial part of the Greater Caucasus, where significant glaciation has developed (area 1780 km 2 ) and the snow melts late, rivers fed by melted snow and glacial waters have high water in the warm part of the year. The rivers of the southern and eastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus and the rivers of the Lesser Caucasus are characterized by spring floods. In other parts of the country, the river regime is flood, with floods throughout the year (the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus south of Sochi, Colchis), in the warm season (on part of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus), in the cold half of the year (the southern coast of Crimea, the western tip of the Greater Caucasus, Talysh Mountains - Mediterranean, or Crimean, according to B. D. Zaikov, character of the regime). In the feeding of the rivers of the Crimean Mountains and the western half of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus, the role of underground karst waters is great, which ensures the regulation of river flow and their relatively high low-water level. Rivers are of great importance for hydropower and irrigation of arid lands, especially in the Kura-Araksin lowland and other areas of the Kura region, as well as in the steppe and semi-steppe territories of the Ciscaucasia.

Within the country, there are 6 main types of altitudinal zonation of landscapes. The Western Caucasian, or Kuban, type is characteristic of the western half of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. Mountain forest landscapes dominate there, replacing forest-steppes of plains and foothills. Low mid-mountain areas with broad-leaved forests turn into high, craggy mid-mountain areas with dark coniferous forests. The mountain-meadow zone with typical alpine-glacial forms in crystalline rocks occupies a vertical space that is not wide. The low position of the glacial-nival zone is characteristic. The East Caucasian, or Dagestan, type is characteristic of the eastern half of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. It differs from the previous one in the appearance of dry-steppe landscapes at the bottom, a sharp narrowing of the mountain forest zone and the absence of an integral belt of coniferous forests, the appearance of steppes and meadow-steppes in the middle mountains, the expansion of the zone of mountain meadows and their partial xerophytization, the worse preservation of ancient alpine-glacial landforms, which are developed here in shales, high location of the glacial-nival zone.

The Western Transcaucasian, or Colchis, type, characteristic of the southern slope of the western half of the Greater Caucasus and the western tip of the Lesser Caucasus, is similar to the Western Caucasus, but differs in that the lower altitudinal zone is represented not by forest-steppe, but by Colchis subtropical forest landscape. The East Transcaucasian type, characteristic of the southern slope of the eastern half of the Greater Caucasus and most of the Lesser Caucasus (its northern and northeastern slopes), has lolusteppes and arid open forests in the lower altitudinal zone, a widely developed mountain forest zone, but without a belt of coniferous forests.

In the highlands there is a similarity with the East Caucasian type: as there, the glacial-nival zone is highly elevated, and here it is very poorly developed and only in the Greater Caucasus.

The Eastern Mediterranean type of altitudinal zonation is characteristic of the western extremity of the Greater Caucasus and the Mountainous Crimea. It is typical of the Mediterranean character of the landscapes of the lower altitudinal zone with xerophytic trees and shrubs (shiblik) thickets, juniper open forests and formations such as the Mediterranean frigana, the widespread occurrence in the lower zone of the mountain forest zone of the Crimean pine, etc. In the peculiar Talgsh type, widespread in the extreme south -east of the country, a decrease in precipitation with altitude appears: the subtropical Talysh forest landscape of the lower zone is replaced by a mid-mountain landscape with the usual Caucasian type broad-leaved forests, and in the ridge part of Talysh - arid basins with xerophytic shrubs, mountain steppes and mountain xerophytes and, finally, on the ridge - high mountain meadow-steppe landscape.

On the plains of the Transcaucasian intermontane depressions and in their foothills, natural landscapes are mainly transformed by the agricultural activities of the population. To a greater extent, the semi-desert landscapes of the Kura depression, as well as areas of swampy alder forests of the Colchis lowland, have still been preserved. The non-swampy lowland forests that once covered vast areas in Western Transcaucasia have largely been replaced by fields and plantations of subtropical crops.

The natural resources of the Crimean-Caucasian country are rich and varied: oil and gas fields of the Kura Depression and the Absheron Peninsula, various ore deposits of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, coal (in the western half of the Greater Caucasus), construction materials, including cement raw materials, rich hydro resources, forests and pastures, a variety of soil and climatic resources that allow the cultivation of various agricultural crops, including subtropical ones, moisture-loving and requiring a lot of sun, -- are the basis for the development of the economy of the republics and regions located here, and many are of national importance.

On the territory of the country there are the main areas of Georgia and Azerbaijan, the northern part of Armenia, the autonomous republics belonging to the RSFSR (Dagestan, Chechen-Ingush, North Ossetian, Kabardino-Balkarian) and the regions of the North Caucasus. Mountainous Crimea belongs to the Ukrainian SSR.

Greater Caucasus region

The Greater Caucasus is a mountain system with altitudes up to 4500 m, with a number of peaks over 5000 m(Mount Elbrus -- 5633 m, Mount Kazbek --5047 m and etc.). It stands out as a physical-geographical region that has a unified tectonic structure formed during the Alpine orogenesis and unique types of altitudinal zoning structure of landscapes.

The Greater Caucasus is a meganticlinorium with an asymmetric structure, composed of sedimentary rocks of Paleogene, Neogene, Cretaceous, Jurassic age. In the axial zone, in the west, Paleozoic crystalline rocks come to the surface.

The asymmetrical structure of the meganticlinorium determines the asymmetry of the slopes of the Greater Caucasus: the northern slope is flatter and longer (up to 160-180 km), the southern one is short and steep. The relief of the region is dominated by folded-structural-erosive ridges. Cuesta ridges are prominent on the northern slope. In limestones, especially on the southwestern slope, karst landforms are widely developed. In the highlands, mainly in the western half, glacial landforms are clearly visible. DrIIis and modern landslides are observed in shales.

The Greater Caucasus region is located in two climatic zones: temperate - northern slope, subtropical - southern; due to the complexity of the mountainous terrain, climatic conditions are heterogeneous. Omi changes from west to east towards greater continentality and dryness and with uplift on the slopes; upward, temperatures decrease and the amount of precipitation increases. In most of the region the climate is temperate continental, on the southwestern slope it is humid subtropical, and in the high mountain zone it is cold. The average temperature in January varies from 4.0° to -14.0, -15.0 e, in July - from 24.0 to 10.0° and below. Precipitation ranges from 500--600 to 2000--2500 mm and more per year.

In the high mountain zone with a cold and humid climate, glaciers are common, occupying an area of ​​​​about 1780 km 2 . Glaciers are an important source of food for the rivers of the Greater Caucasus. The rivers belong to the basins of the Kuban, Terek, Sulak, Rioni, Kura, etc. They differ in nutrition and regime. The rivers flowing from glaciers are of the Alpine type and their maximum flow is at the end of summer. On the northern slope there are rivers of the North Caucasian type, fed by snow and rainwater, with floods in the warm season. The rivers flowing from the low mountains of the southwestern slope are fed mainly by rainfall and their flow is more or less uniform throughout the year. Large rivers, whose sources are in glaciers and whose tributaries are in other zones, are characterized by extended floods and large runoff. The runoff module in the Greater Caucasus Mountains increases with height from 5-10 to 50-100 l/sec from 1 km 2 . The region is rich in mineral springs of various chemical compositions, especially in the areas of Kislovodsk, Sochi (Matsesta), Tskaltubo, etc.

The largest areas of the Greater Caucasus are occupied by the mid-mountain forest zone. The mountain slopes are covered with oak, oak-hornbeam, beech-hornbeam and beech forests on mountain-forest brown soils. The upper belt of the forest zone is formed by spruce-fir forests on brown podzolized soils in the west and pine forests on podzolic soils in the east.

Above 2000 m(up to 2800 m) the mountain-meadow zone rises. The vegetation of the slopes is dominated by cereal-forb, forb-grass subalpine and alpine meadows on mountain-meadow soils. In this zone, summer pastures occupy about 18,400 thousand hectares. ha area.

The forest-steppe zone predominates in the foothills and low mountains. Here, oak-hornbeam forests on gray forest and mountain-forest brown soils alternate with thickets of shrubs on brown soils and cereal-forb, cereal steppes and meadow-steppes on chernozem and chestnut soils.

On the southwestern slope in the foothills and low mountains up to 1000 m The forest zone of the humid subtropics rises. Broad-leaved forests with evergreen shrubs and vines grow on yellow earth and red earth soils. Forests in the region occupy about 4,500 thousand hectares. ha.

On the northeastern slope with a drier climate, a mid-mountain steppe zone with upland xerophytes is expressed.

Different combinations of the mentioned zones, which have different features in different parts of the mountain region and consist of different altitudinal zones, give those main types of structure of altitudinal zoning of landscapes, which were mentioned in the general characteristics of the Crimean-

Caucasian country. The difference in the structure of altitudinal zonation served as one of the important signs of the division of the mountainous region of the Greater Caucasus into provinces.

The North Caucasus province occupies the western and central parts of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus up to an altitude of 2000-2200 m. The relief shows three cuesta ridges, which correspond to the Labinsky-Malkinsky zone of a gentle monocline, the Ossetian and western parts of the Dagestan zones with a series of simply constructed folds. Cuestas are separated by longitudinal valleys, consisting of individual basins and transverse erosion ridges. Transverse valleys are narrow when crossing ridges and wide in longitudinal basins. In the limestones of the Cretaceous and Jurassic age, especially in the Valanginian limestones, as well as in the Tithonian gypsum, karst landforms are developed - failures, funnels, carr fields, niches, caves. Landslides form in shale. The province belongs to the seismicity zone of 6 points.

The climate of the province is moderate continental, formed mainly under the influence of warm and humid western and northwestern air masses. Ridges stretching from northwest to southeast form a barrier for air masses moving perpendicular to them, as a result of which the northern slopes are more moist, the southern slopes and longitudinal valleys are drier. The average temperature in January is -2.0, -5.2°, in July 22.0--24.0°, temperatures decrease up the slopes. Minimum temperature -31.0°, maximum 35.0°. The sum of temperatures above 10° decreases upward from 3200 to 2200°. The frost-free period is 180-200 days. Precipitation ranges from 450 to 900 mm per year, the least of them are in longitudinal valleys. Maximum precipitation occurs in late spring and summer. The snow cover is stable, its thickness is 15-35 cm. In winter, when northern cold air masses invade, fog, frost, and ice form. In the summer, in some years, there are downpours that cause catastrophic floods and large soil erosion.

The province is rich in rivers belonging to the Kuban and Terek basins. Large rivers are transit, their sources are located in the high mountain zone of the Greater Caucasus. Rivers are fed by snow, rain and groundwater; large rivers additionally receive water from melting glaciers. River flows are highest in spring and summer. The drain module increases with height from 5--6 to 25--27 l/sec from 1 km 2 . The province has many mineral springs with carbon dioxide, hydrocarbonate-sulfate, nitrogen-methane, thermal sulfate, hydrogen sulfide sulfate and other waters. They are used for medicinal purposes in many resorts (Kislovodsk, Nalchik, Tamisk, etc.).

The foothills are occupied by a forest-steppe zone. The foothill range, called the Black Mountains in the east, reaches a height of up to 500-600 m composed of Paleogene and Neogene shelled limestones, conglomerates, sandstones, and clays. It has gentle slopes, rounded peaks, and is dissected by transit rivers into separate ridges and massifs. The vegetation of the slopes is dominated by oak and oak-hornbeam forests with shrub undergrowth, under which mountain forest brown soils are developed, and in the foothills in the west there are gray forest soils. The forests are interrupted by cereal-forb meadow steppes with meadow chernozem soils. Soils have a power of up to 150 cm, granular structure, humus 4-14%.

Mid-mountain forest zone rises to 2000 m along the slopes of the Cretaceous Cuesta and Rocky Ridge, composed of Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic limestones, clay-gypsum, sandy-clayey rocks, marls, sandstones, etc. On the northern slopes, where precipitation falls 700-900 mm precipitation per year, broad-leaved beech, beech and hornbeam forests grow, with large reserves of wood. So, in beech forests you can get from 400 to 800 m 3 wood from 1 ha. Under the forests there are mountain-forest brown soils, as well as humus-carbonate soils on the limestones.

On the southern steep, often rocky slopes of cuestas, rocky and gravelly screes are common. Oak forests and thickets of bushes dominate here on thin mountain forest brown soils.

In the longitudinal valleys—basins with the driest climate in the province—talus cones are widely developed. On gravelly thin steppe and meadow-steppe soils, cereal and grass-forb steppe and meadow-steppe groups predominate, among which there are patches of upland xerophytes.

On the peaks of the Cretaceous Cuesta and Rocky Ridge above 1800-- 2000 m There is a mid-mountain meadow zone. The mountains are covered with subalpine grass-forb and forb meadows with dense, tall grass. Mountain meadow soils are developed under the meadows. Grass productivity is 12--15 c/ha dry mass.

Significant areas of the province are occupied by cliffs, steep slopes, and scree, especially on the southern slopes of cuestas and in deep transverse valleys.

The wealth of the province is forests. Forestry is being developed, which must be limited on steep slopes, where soil erosion is intense and landslides occur. The province is rich in building materials - limestone, marl, gypsum, dolomite, etc. Meadows and steppes are used for summer pastures and hayfields. In the foothills and intermontane basins, some of the land is plowed, but there is not so much arable land, up to 850 thousand. ha\ They are occupied with grain and vegetable crops, partly with gardens.

Dagestan province differs from the North Caucasus in a more complex orographic structure, a drier and continental climate, a very small forest area - 8-9% of the entire area of ​​the province, and the dominance of forest-steppe and steppe landscapes.

The province's terrain is low and mid-mountain. The ridges rise to 1500--1900 m. Highest mountain - Gunib - 2351 m. The foothills and low mountains are composed of Paleogene, Neogene and Cretaceous sandstones, clays, shell and other limestones, folded into gentle anticlinal folds, elongated from northwest to southeast. Plateau-shaped and flat structural-erosive ridges are complicated by erosional hollows of temporary watercourses, dry valleys, the depth of which reaches 400 m, ravines, gullies, and sometimes clayey pseudo-karst.

The ridges and plateaus of Middle Mountain Dagestan are composed of a thick layer of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones, sandstones and Middle Jurassic shales. The rocks are crushed into simply constructed anticlinal and synclinal folds that have a chest structure, that is, characterized by gently sloping arches and steep wings. The relief is characterized by deep incision of valleys (up to 1000 m), alternation of anticlinal and synclinal plateaus, synclinal and anticlinal basins with steep, rocky slopes. Landslides form in shale. Mud mudflows, landslides, and screes are often observed. Most of the territory is located in a seismic zone of 6 points, but to the west of Makhachkala, seismicity reaches 7-8 points.

Located in the east of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus, the province is removed from the humid western air masses, so little precipitation falls here. The climate is moderate continental, but heterogeneous due to the complexity of the terrain. The average January temperature in the foothills is -2.5, -2.9°, on high plateaus and in basins up to -6.0°. Summer is hot in the foothills and in the basins, where the average July temperature is 22.0--23.0°, warm on the plateau, the average July temperature is 16.0--15.0°. Minimum temperature -26.0°, maximum 39.0°. The sum of temperatures above 10.0° reaches 3600° in the foothills, above 1600° - up to 1200°. The frost-free period lasts 210-150 days. Precipitation per year ranges from 400 to 630 mm, There are fewer of them in the foothills and basins. Maximum precipitation occurs in late spring - early summer. Sometimes in summer there are downpours, causing large floods on rivers and the formation of mudflows. The snow cover lasts 45-60 days, its thickness is 6-15 cm.

The province is not so rich in rivers with permanent watercourses. It is crossed by the Andian, Avar, Kazikumukh Koisu and Kara-Koisu, which, merging, form the river. Sulak. In the mid-mountain part, the runoff module is 10--12 l/sec from 1 km 2 , on large rivers up to 17 l/sec from 1 km 2 . The number of permanent watercourses decreases sharply in the foothills, where the runoff modulus reaches 0.5-5 l/sec from 1 km 2 . The maximum flow is in spring and early summer. Small rivers dry up in summer. There are few groundwater outlets in the province, especially in the foothills where water supply and irrigation are scarce. There are mineral springs (Talgi, Kayakent, Rychalsu, Makhachkala).

This province has a more complex structure of altitudinal zonation of landscapes than the North Caucasus. Up to a height of 300-400 m, on the plateau-like foothills there is a dry steppe zone with thickets of bushes. The plateaus and slopes of southern exposure are occupied by wormwood-fescue, fescue-bearded beard, and grass and forb groups. Under them chestnut soils with a thickness of up to 60-80 are developed. cm.

In the foothills up to an altitude of 600-700 m with slightly higher moisture, oak and oak-hornbeam open forests on mountain forest brown soils alternate with wheatgrass-feather grass steppe groups on dark chestnut soils on the southern slopes and forb-grass meadow-steppe groups on chernozem soils. Grass productivity 7--8 c/ha dry mass.

The northern and eastern slopes of the Salatau, Gimrinsky, Shamkhaldag and other ridges up to a height of 1300-1400 m are covered with beech-hornbeam forests, under which mountain forest brown soils are developed.

The largest areas are occupied by the mid-mountain steppe zone. There are rocky slopes, deep valleys, and a dry climate. The vegetation is dominated by bearded vulture, wheatgrass, fescue-feather grass groups on mountain chernozem soils. Soils are thin (up to 60-80 cm), crushed. They are carbonate. In chernozems there is 4-7% humus. Herbage productivity ranges from 4-5 to 10 c/ha dry mass. The basins and valleys are characterized by upland xerophytic vegetation consisting of dry-loving grasses and subshrubs.

Above 1500 m there is a meadow-steppe zone. The plateau and slopes are covered with grass and forb groups with a large share of

fescue, tonkonoga, confined To meadow-chernozem soils. Grass productivity up to 15-- 17 c/ha dry mass.

The Dagestan province differs from other provinces of the Greater Caucasus in the intensive development of mountain farming and horticulture on artificially terraced slopes with cultivated soils. Arable lands occupy about 260 thousand hectares, gardens - up to 13,120 ha, vineyards -- more than 6550 hectares. Part of the land is irrigated, land with an irrigation network is about 147,100 ha.

Large areas, more than 655 thousand. ha, allocated for summer pastures. About 8 thousand ha meadows and steppes are used for haymaking.

The province is poor in mineral resources. There is oil and gas in the foothills. Development of building materials is underway - clays, limestones, shell limestones, etc. In the village. Dagestan Lights built a glass factory based on glass sands and natural gas. The large rivers of the Sulak basin have significant hydropower reserves.

Western Highlands Province located at altitudes over 2000 m and stretches from Mount Fisht to the river. Terek. It includes the Vodorazdelny and Bokovoy ridges, rising to 3500-4500 m, individual peaks - more than 5000 m. The province is dominated by mountain-meadow and subnival-glacial landscapes.

The ridges correspond to anticlinoria, separated by a longitudinal depression - a synclinorium. They are composed of crystalline shales, marble-like limestones, Precambrian and Paleozoic conglomerates and Lower Jurassic shales. In the northwest, Lower Paleozoic metamorphosed rocks come to the surface, forming a horst-shaped protrusion. On the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus within the province, Lower and Middle Jurassic sandstones and tuff breccias are common. There are also outcrops of granitoids of different ages, but predominantly Paleozoic. Deposits of many ores are associated with granitoids: polymetallic (Sadon, Buron, etc.), tungsten-molybdenum (Tyrny-Auz), copper pyrite (Beskes-Urup), and on the southern slope - barite-polymetallic ores (Racha, South Ossetia).

At the sources of Tskhenis-Tskali (Tsana) and Rioni (Karobi), molybdenum and arsenopyrite ores are confined to granites and dacites.

The main orographic elements correspond to the folded structure. The ridge zone is dominated by alpine steep, rocky, inaccessible peaks. On the ridges, glacial forms are clearly visible: troughs, kars, and in the valleys there are ancient moraines. The slopes of the ridges are dissected by deep valleys (up to 1000-1500 m), the bottoms of which lie at altitudes of 1200--1500 m above level m. The peaks of Elbrus and Kazbek are volcanic cones mounted on ancient crystalline and sedimentary rocks.

In the east, mudflows form in clay shales, especially in the Terek basin. Stone slides, landslides, and rockfalls are typical.

The climate is formed under the influence of the western circulation of air masses in the free atmosphere. On the northern slope to the river. Kuban, in the southern part

R. Aragvi is dominated by occluded Mediterranean cyclones, and to the east - occluded Western European cyclones. Cyclones bring a large amount of precipitation, which falls 2500-2000 times. mm in the west, 1600--1200 mm in the east of the province. In deep valleys and basins the amount of precipitation decreases to 600 mm in year. The climate in the province is cool, above 4000 in summer m the temperature rarely rises above 0°. The average August temperature is up to 14.0° (in valleys), 10.0--8.0° (at altitudes 2000--2800 l). The average temperature in January decreases accordingly from -6.0 to -10.0, -15.0°. Frost-free period is 150--80 days, above 3000 m there is no such period. In winter, a stable snow cover forms up to 1-2 m in depressions, on gentle slopes - up to 50-60 cm. In the mountains of the province, avalanches are often observed, especially dangerous in the spring. Avalanche-hazardous relief forms are karas and trough valleys.

The province is characterized by large runoff values. The drain module is 60--100 l/sec from 1 km 2 - the highest in the Caucasus. The sources of the large rivers Terek, Kuban, Rioni, Inguri and their other tributaries, originating in the province, are predominantly glacial-snow fed and extended floods (up to 6 months). The maximum flow is observed in August on the northern slope and in July on the southern slope.

In the west of the province there are many lakes, small in area and depth. They are predominantly of glacial origin - cirques, moraines, but there are also ones beyond the mines. In a number of valleys, Rioni, Ardon, Terek, etc., there are outlets of mineral springs of the “Narzan” type, etc.

The largest area in the province is occupied by the mountain-meadow zone. Here folded-erosive ridges are complicated by glacial landforms. In vegetation up to a height of 2300--2400 m subalpine grass-forb, forb-grass meadows with dense and tall grass predominate. The productivity of grass in hayfields reaches 20-25 c/ha dry mass. Mountain-meadow subalpine soils formed under these meadows. Depending on the steepness of the slopes, their thickness ranges from 50 to 100 cm. They contain up to 12% humus. Among the meadows on crushed colluvium with peaty soils, thickets of bushes with a predominance of Caucasian rhododendron are common.

Above subalpine meadows (up to 2600-3000 m) The crushed colluvium is dominated by alpine meadows of low-grass small-grass-sedge-forb groups. Thin peaty or turfy mountain-meadow soils containing humus up to 12-20% are developed here. Alpine meadows are interrupted by rocks and screes with sparse rocky vegetation of cereals and herbs.

The mountain-meadow zone is a zone of summer pastures occupying about 1290 thousand hectares. ha. In river valleys and on gentle slopes, meadows are used for haymaking.

Upper mountain zone, above 2600--3000 m, occupies the nival-glacial zone. Large areas are occupied by glaciers (about 1600 km 2 ), perennial snows. There are up to 1,100 glaciers here. More glaciers are located on the northern slope, where the largest ones lie, up to 10-14 km length. The largest centers of glaciation: Mount Elbrus - 144 km 2 , Mount Kazbek-- 135 km 2 .

In deeply incised valleys, along mountain slopes up to an altitude of 2000 m spruce-fir, spruce-fir-beech forests grow, being replaced east of Kuban and Aragvi by beech and pine forests. Under beech and dark coniferous forests, mountain forest brown soils with signs of podzolization are developed, and under pine forests there are podzolic soils. Spruce-fir forests are rich in wood. Fir wood reserves range from 400 to 1000 m G/ha, ate --from 300 to 900 m 3 /ha. Forestry operations are underway. Climatic resorts have been created in deep valleys with a dry, warm climate (Teberda, Arkhyz, Tsey, Shovi, etc.). The picturesque nature, the presence of glaciers and rocks attract a huge number of tourists and climbers, for whom many tourist and mountaineering bases and camps have been created.

Eastern Highlands Province occupies the eastern half of the axial zone of the Greater Caucasus with altitudes from 2000 to 3200 m. A number of peaks rise above 4000 m: Mount Tebulos Mta -- 4494 m, Mount Bazar-Duzi -- 4480 m etc. Valley bottoms sometimes lie at an altitude of 600 m above level m.

The Watershed, displaced to the south, and the Side Range are anticlinoria with highly compressed folds, complicated by faults on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus. Between the ridges there is a longitudinal valley - a synclinorium, consisting of separate basins separated by ridges. In the province, a thick layer of clayey shales and sandstones of the Lower and Middle Jurassic is folded. In addition to tectonics, erosion played a major role in the formation of the relief, as a result of which the Side Range consists of a system of ridges elongated in the northeast direction and separated by deep river valleys. Intense processes of physical weathering cause the formation of crushed stone screes and coarse rocky colluvium. In the province, mudflow fans and alluvial fans of lateral tributaries of rivers are widespread, on which the thickness of alluvial-deluvial sediment reaches 40 m. On the slopes of the ridges there are ancient landslide landforms; Landslides still occur today, which hinders the construction of roads. There is not a single pass road here.

The eastern position of the province determines the formation of the climate under the influence of occluded Western European cyclones and partially cyclones of the Iranian front in the free atmosphere.

In the province, with movement to the east, the dryness and continental climate increase, especially in the valleys. Temperatures decrease with altitude. Summer is warm in the valleys, cool in the upper zone. The average temperature in July-August is up to 20.0° (in valleys), up to 5.0° (above 2900 jk). The average January temperature in the valleys is up to -4.0°, in the highlands up to -12.0°. The frost-free period decreases with altitude from 220 to 80 days, but above 3000 m There is no frost-free period. Precipitation increases with altitude from 400 to 1000 mm per year, the maximum falls in summer. Summer heavy rains cause high floods on rivers, the formation of mudflows and landslides. The snow cover is stable and lasts from 100 to 180 days. Its power is from 15 to 50 cm. In spring, snow avalanches fall from the slopes, especially frequent in the western half of the province. There are few glaciers here - the glaciation area is up to 150 km 2 .

A decrease in precipitation and a small area of ​​glaciers cause a small runoff compared to the western highland province. The drain module increases with height from 10--15 to 40--50 l!sec from 1 km 2 . The rivers belonging to the Terek, Sulak, and Samur basins are fed mainly by snow and rainwater and their maximum flow is in late spring and summer. There are not many outlets of underground spring water.

The province is dominated by a mountain-meadow landscape zone, rising to 2800-3000 At. Slopes of ridges and valleys up to 2500 m covered with subalpine meadows dominated by fescue-forb, variegated brome-reed, reed-forb, and cereal groups. The productivity of grass in virgin areas is up to 18-20 c/ha dry mass. The meadows are confined to mountain-meadow turfy subalpine soils. The soils have a thickness of up to 50-80 s At, a lot of crushed stone, humus from 5 to 13%.

Above the subalpine meadows are alpine small-grass-sedge-forb, cereal, cobresia and other meadows. Under the alpine meadows, turf and peaty, thin soils are developed.

(up to 50 cm), Crushed, often skeletal, mountain-meadow alpine soils. They contain a lot of humus (from 6 to 20%). Productivity of grass stand of alpine meadows up to 10--12 c/ha dry mass. Among the meadows, large spaces are occupied by rocky screes with rock-talus herbaceous vegetation, mosses and lichens, and bare rocks. In the grassed areas of meadows, the grass stand is formed by tough grasses - variegated fescue and white fescue.

On the slopes of southern exposure and in river valleys up to an altitude of 2000 m there is a mountain-steppe zone. Characteristic here are wheatgrass, wheatgrass-fescue, wormwood-grass-steppe groups, and mountain xerophytes on mountain-steppe, thin, gravelly soils. On the slopes of the northern, western exposure, which receive slightly more moisture, beech-hornbeam, oak and pine forests grow, mainly in the western half of the province, but do not form an entire zone.

Above 3000 m A narrow strip of mountains is occupied by a subnival zone, characterized by the severity of natural conditions and the absence of continuous grass cover and soils.

The main wealth of the province is mountain meadows, used for grazing livestock in the summer. Summer pastures occupy up to 1235 thousand hectares.

Improvement of pastures is required in the future. In river valleys, mainly in the east, with a warmer climate, there are arable lands (up to 60 thousand hectares). ha), occupied by crops of barley and vegetable crops.

North- Black Seaprovinces occupies the northern part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. The eastern border runs east of Tuapse. Mediterranean landscapes dominate here.

Low-mountain relief formed on the site of the flysch zone of the northwestern Caucasus. Anticlinal ridges rising to 600-- 800 m, separated by longitudinal synclinal valleys. Cretaceous and Lower Paleogene limestones, marls, shales, and sandstones are folded into folds. Upper Cretaceous marls are used to produce high-quality cement. The relief is dominated by gentle rounded shapes. The mountains drop steeply to the sea and are separated from it by a narrow strip of pebble beach. The coastline is complicated by a number of regression bays, convenient for anchoring ships (Novorossiysk, Gelendzhik). The coastal strip is being washed away and destroyed by sea waters. Transverse valleys crossing the ridges are deep and narrow.

The province is characterized by a Mediterranean-type climate, characterized by hot and dry sunny summers and relatively warm and humid winters. The average temperature in January is 4.0, -2.0°, in July 24.0 - -22.4°. Absolute minimum --26.0, --30.0°, maximum 35.0--37.0°. The frost-free period lasts 200-230 days. The sum of temperatures above 10° is 3600--3200°. Precipitation ranges from 400 to 800 mm per year, their maximum in late autumn-winter, minimum in summer. In winter, precipitation falls mainly in the form of showers, causing intense soil loss, especially in treeless areas. When cold northeastern air masses invade in winter, “bora” winds are formed, blowing at high speeds (up to 20 m/sec) and sharply decreasing temperatures (down to -25.0°). Boras are more often observed in the Novorossiysk region - the windiest region in the Caucasus. The warm, dry climate of the province, the presence of beautiful beaches and the sea favored the construction of sanatoriums and holiday homes, especially for children.

Insufficient atmospheric moisture and the presence of permeable rocks determine the poor development of the river network. The rivers are of the Mediterranean type and have a flood regime. They feed mainly on rainwater. Maximum

River flows are observed in winter and minimal in summer. Many small rivers dry up in summer. Province flow module up to \Ъл!sec from 1 km 2 .

The Cretaceous flysch deposits are associated with hydrocarbonate-sodium waters carbonated with nitrogen and methane, which come to the surface in the form of springs in the areas of Gelendzhik, Novorossiysk, etc.

The dry climate in the warm season determines the xerophytic nature of the vegetation with a large participation of Mediterranean plant species. The lower slopes of the mountains are covered with thickets of shrubs - pine tree, mackerel, butcher's broom, juniper, under which mountain-brown soils are developed. The soils were formed on carbonate rocks. They have a heavy loamy mechanical composition, lumpy structure, humus up to 8-10%. Their power is up to 75 cm.

Significant areas (up to 20%) of the province are occupied by Crimean-type forests of calcareous and downy oak, pine (Pallas pine), and tree-like juniper. Forests grow on humus-carbonate soils. Soil thickness up to 50--60 cm. Humus V up to 11% of them. On dry rocky slopes, especially with a southern exposure, vegetation of the freegana type is widespread, consisting of dry-loving subshrubs and herbs (siderites, sage, asphedoline, crazy cucumber, etc.) growing on gravelly soils.

Significant areas of the province are ploughed. There are about 120 thousand arable lands here. ha. Of these, about 15 thousand. ha occupied by vineyards, about 2000 ha- gardens. The remaining lands are allocated for tobacco and tea plantations, grain and vegetable crops. About 34 thousand ha lands are used for pastures.

Colchis mountainprovinces. On the southwestern slope of the Greater Caucasus from the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000-2200 m The Colchis province is located, in which wet mountain forest landscapes predominate. The province includes the Gagrinsky, Bzybskhiy, Rachinsky, Lechkhu.msky ridges, the southern slope of the Megrelian ridge, the spurs of the Svaneti and Kodori ridges, the vast Askhi and Kerala plateaus, etc.

The province has a complex folded structure, including the Abkhaz-Racha folded zone, the Rachin-Lechkhumi trough and the Sukhumi-Megrelian subzone of the Rio intermountain depression extending to the south. In the west, the flysch fold zone enters here. They are characterized by wide and flat synclines and narrow anticlines complicated by faults (Milanovsky and Hann, 1963). Sedimentary rocks of different ages are crushed into folds. In the foothills, Paleogene and Neogene molasse deposits of shale clays, sandstones, marls predominate, and in the west - flysch and conglomerates. Upper Cretaceous limestones with a thickness of up to 2000 are widespread. m. In the arches of the anticlines, Lower and Middle Jurassic sandstones and shales come to the surface. Coal is associated with Jurassic deposits (Tkibuli, Tkvarcheli). The Lower Oligocene rocks contain the largest deposit of manganese (Chiatura). In the Rioni basin, in the Zugdidi region, there are barite deposits. The province is rich in natural building materials - dolomites, limestones, marls, refractory and ceramic clays, roofing slates. Fluorite clays are being mined near Kutaisi.

In the Colchis province, seismicity reaches 6 points, but increases in the vicinity of Sochi to 7 points.

The relief of the province is dominated by folded-erosive ridges corresponding to the folded structure. In some cases, the relief does not coincide with the structure, for example, the anticlinal Tkibul

basin, etc. A feature of the province is the intensive development of karst landforms in limestone. There is surface and underground karst. Sinkholes, wells, carrow fields, caves with stalactites and stalagmites, and karst caves are widespread. In the foothills, where conglomerates are underlain by clays, landslides occur.

The southern position and the province's openness to Mediterranean cyclones and southwestern humid air masses determine the formation of a humid and warm climate. In the foothills and low mountains up to an altitude of 800-1000 m The climate is humid subtropical with positive average monthly temperatures almost throughout the year. Above, the climate is temperate continental and humid. The average January temperature in the foothills is up to 4.0°, above 1500 m--6.0°, July -- respectively 24.0--16.0°. Absolute minimum --13.0, --25.0°, maximum up to 33.0°. The sum of temperatures above 10° decreases with altitude from 4500 to 2000°. The frost-free period lasts from 280 to 200 days. Precipitation ranges from 1000 to 1800 mm in year. In the foothills, precipitation is distributed more or less evenly throughout the year, with a maximum in late autumn and winter. Sustained snow cover can be above 1000 m, where its power reaches 15-30 cm. In some years, cold air masses from the northwest penetrate into the province, lowering temperatures and causing the death of subtropical crops. In the east, hair dryers often blow, raising temperatures and lowering air humidity.

Despite the dominance of limestone, in which the underground flow slightly exceeds the surface one, and many rivers flow underground and come to the surface in the lower reaches, the province is rich in river water due to the transit large rivers - Rioni, Kodori, Bzybi, Tskhenis-Tskali, Inguri and others, originating in the glaciers of the high-mountain zone of the Greater Caucasus and having extended floods.

Rivers originating from the mountains of the province are fed by snow, rain and groundwater. They have high water in spring and summer. The drain module increases with height from 25 to 50 l!sec from 1 km 2 . Colchis province is one of the richest in the Caucasus in terms of hydropower resources. So, in the Rioni basin - about 30.5 billion, ket* h, Inguri - up to 21 billion, ket * h etc. Projects for cascades of hydroelectric power stations on the Inguri and Rioni rivers have been developed. There are karst lakes in the province. Here is the most beautiful lake in the Caucasus - Lake. Ritsa.

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