The history of the development of communication lines in Russia The first long-distance overhead line was built between St. Petersburg and Warsaw in 1854. In the 1870s, an overhead communication line from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok L = 10 thousand km was put into operation. In 1939, a high-frequency communication line from Moscow to Khabarovsk L = 8,300 thousand km was put into operation. In 1851 a telegraph cable was laid from Moscow to St. Petersburg, insulated with gutta-percha tape. In 1852, the first submarine cable was laid across the Northern Dvina.In 1866, a cable transatlantic telegraph communication line between France and the United States was put into operation

The history of the development of communication lines in Russia In the years in Russia, the first aerial urban telephone networks were built (the cable consisted of up to 54 cores with air-paper insulation) In 1901, the construction of an underground city telephone network began in Russia. winding to artificially increase the inductance. Since 1917, a telephone amplifier on electronic tubes was developed and tested on the line, in 1923 a telephone connection with amplifiers was carried out on the Kharkov-Moscow-Petrograd line. From the beginning of the 30s, multichannel transmission systems based on coaxial cables began to develop.

The history of the development of communication lines in Russia In 1936 the first coaxial HF telephone line for 240 channels was put into operation. In 1956, an underwater coaxial telephone and telegraph trunk line between Europe and America was built. In 1965, the first experimental waveguide lines and cryogenic cable lines with very low attenuation appeared. By the early 1980s, fiber-optic communication systems were developed and tested in real conditions.

Types of communication lines (LANs) and their properties There are two main types of LANs: - lines in the atmosphere (radio lines RL) - directing transmission lines (communication lines). Typical wavelength and radio frequency ranges Ultra-long waves (VLW) Long waves (LW) Medium waves (MW) Short waves (HF) Ultra-short waves (VHF) Decimeter waves (DCM) Centimeter waves (CM) Millimeter waves (MM) Optical range km ( kHz) km (kHz) 1.0 ... 0.1 km (0, MHz) m (MHz) m (MHz), 1 m (0, GHz) cm (GHz) mm (GHz), 1 μm

The main disadvantages of RL (radio communication) are: -dependence of the quality of communication on the state of the transmission medium and third-party electromagnetic fields; -low speed; insufficiently high electromagnetic compatibility in the range of meter waves and above; - the complexity of the transmitter and receiver equipment; - narrowband transmission systems, especially at long waves and above.

In order to reduce the disadvantages of radar, higher frequencies (centimeter, optical ranges) decimeter millimeter range are used. This is a chain of repeaters installed every 50 km-100 km. RRL allows you to receive the number of channels () over distances (up to km); These lines are less susceptible to interference, provide a fairly stable and high-quality connection, but the degree of transmission security over them is insufficient. Radio relay lines (RRL)

Centimeter wavelength range. SLs allow multichannel communication at an "infinite" distance; Satellite communication lines (SL) Advantages of SL - a large coverage area and transmission of information over long distances. The disadvantage of SL is the high cost of launching a satellite and the complexity of organizing duplex telephone communication.

Advantages of directing LANs - high quality of signal transmission, - high transmission speed, - great protection from the influence of third-party fields, - relative simplicity of terminal devices. Disadvantages of directing drugs - high cost of capital and operating costs, - the relative duration of establishing a connection.

Radar and LS do not oppose, but complement each other. At present, signals from direct current to the optical frequency range are transmitted via communication lines, and the operating wavelength range extends from 0.85 microns to hundreds of kilometers. - cable (CL) - air (VL) - fiber-optic (FOCL). The main types of targeted drugs:

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR COMMUNICATION LINES - communication over distances up to km within the country and up to international communication; - broadband and suitability for the transmission of various types of modern information (television, telephony, data transmission, broadcasting, transmission of newspaper strips, etc.); -protection of circuits from mutual and external interference, as well as from thunderstorms and corrosion; - stability of electrical parameters of the line, stability and reliability of communication; - the efficiency of the communication system as a whole.

Modern development of cable technology 1. The predominant development of coaxial systems that allow organizing powerful communication beams and transmission of television programs over long distances via a single-cable communication system. 2. Creation and implementation of promising communication channels that provide a large number of channels and do not require scarce metals (copper, lead) for their production. 3. Widespread introduction of plastics (polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, etc.) into cable technology, which have good electrical and mechanical characteristics and allow you to automate production.

4. Introduction of aluminum, steel and plastic casings instead of lead ones. The sheaths must be airtight and ensure the stability of the electrical parameters of the cable during the entire service life. 5. Development and introduction into production of cost-effective designs of intra-zone communication cables (single-coaxial, single-quadrant, unarmored). 6. Creation of shielded cables that reliably protect the information transmitted through them from external electromagnetic influences and thunderstorms, in particular, cables in two-layer sheaths such as aluminum steel and aluminum lead.

7. Increasing the dielectric strength of the insulation of communication cables. A modern cable must simultaneously possess the properties of both a high-frequency cable and a power electric cable, and ensure the transmission of high-voltage currents for remote power supply of unattended amplifying points over long distances.

The entire history of the development of cable communication systems is associated with the problem of increasing the volume of information transmitted over a wired communication channel.

In turn, the amount of information transmitted is determined by the bandwidth. It has been found that the attainable speed of information transfer is the higher, the higher the frequency of oscillations of an electric current or radio wave. In order to transmit any letter of the alphabet in encoded form, it is necessary to use 7-8 bits. Thus, if a wire connection with a frequency of 20 kHz is used to transmit text, then a standard book of 400–500 pages can be transmitted in about 1.5–2 hours. When transmitting on a 32 MHz link, the same procedure will only take 2-3 seconds.

Let's consider how with the development of wire communication, i.e. with the development of new frequencies, the bandwidth of the communication channel changed.

As noted above, the development of electrical systems for transmitting information began with the invention by P.L. Schilling in 1832 of the telegraph line using needles. A copper wire was used as a communication line. This line provided a data transfer rate of 3 bit / s (1/3 letter). The first Morse telegraph line (1844) provided a speed of 5 bits / s (0.5 letters). The invention of the printing telegraph system in 1860 provided a speed of 10 bit / s (1 letter). In 1874, the Baudot sixfold telegraph system already provided a transmission rate of 100 bit / s (10 letters). The first telephone lines, built on the basis of the telephone invented in 1876 by Bell, provided information transfer rates of 1000 bps (1kbps –100 letters).

The first practical telephone circuit was single-wire, with telephones plugged in at its ends. This principle required a large number of not only connecting lines, but also the telephones themselves. This simple device was replaced in 1878 by the first switch, which made it possible to connect multiple telephones through a single switching field.

Until 1900, the originally used single-wire grounded circuits were replaced by two-wire transmission lines. Despite the fact that by this time the switch had already been invented, each subscriber had his own communication line. What was needed was a way to increase the number of channels without laying additional thousands of kilometers of wires. However, the emergence of this method (sealing system) was delayed until the advent of electronics in early 1900. The first commercial multiplexing system was established in the United States, where a four-channel frequency division multiplexing system began operating between Baltimore and Pittsburgh in 1918. Prior to World War II, most developments were directed towards increasing the efficiency of overhead line and multi-pair cable sealing systems, since almost all telephone circuits were organized along these two transmission media.

The invention of six to twelve channel transmission systems in 1920 made it possible to increase the information transfer rate in a given frequency band up to 10,000 bit / s, (10 kbit / s - 1000 letters). The upper cutoff frequencies of overhead and multi-pair cable lines were 150 and 600 kHz, respectively. The need for the transmission of large amounts of information required the creation of broadband transmission systems.

In the 30-40s of the twentieth century, coaxial cables were introduced. In 1948, the L1 coaxial cable system was commissioned by Bell System between cities on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. This coaxial cable system made it possible to increase the bandwidth of the linear path to 1.3 MHz, which ensured the transmission of information over 600 channels.

After the Second World War, active development was carried out to improve coaxial cable systems. If initially the coaxial circuits were laid separately, then they began to combine several coaxial cables in a common protective sheath. For example, the American company Bell developed in the 60s of the twentieth century an intercontinental system with a bandwidth of 17.5 MHz (3600 channels on a coaxial circuit or "tube"). For this system, a cable was developed in which 20 "tubes" were combined in one sheath. The total cable capacity was 32,400 channels in each direction, and two “tubes” remained in reserve.

In the USSR, at about the same time, the K-3600 system was developed on the domestic cable KMB 8/6, which has 14 coaxial circuits in one sheath. Then there is a coaxial system with a greater bandwidth of 60 MHz. It provided a capacity of 9000 channels in each pair. In a common shell, 22 pairs are combined.

Large capacity coaxial cable systems in the late twentieth century were commonly used for communications between closely spaced centers of high population density. However, the cost of installing such systems was high due to the small distance between the intermediate amplifiers and due to the high cost of the cable and its installation.

6.4.2. History of fiber optic communication systems

According to modern views, all electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves and visible light, have a dual structure and behave either as a wave-like process in a continuous medium or as a stream of particles called photons, or quanta. Each quantum has a certain energy.

The concept of light as a stream of particles was first introduced by Newton. In 1905, A. Einstein, on the basis of Planck's theory, revived in a new form the corpuscular theory of light, which is now called the quantum theory of light. In 1917, he theoretically predicted the phenomenon of stimulated or induced radiation, on the basis of the use of which quantum amplifiers were subsequently created. In 1951, Soviet scientists V. A. Fabrikant, M. M. Vudynsky and F. A. Butaeva received an inventor's certificate for the discovery of the principle of operation of an optical amplifier. Somewhat later, in 1953, Weber made a proposal for a quantum amplifier. In 1954, N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov proposed a specific project for a molecular gas generator and amplifier with theoretical justification. Independently, Gordon, Zeiger and Townes came to the idea of ​​a similar generator, and in 1954 they published a report on the creation of an operating quantum generator based on a beam of ammonia molecules. Somewhat later, in 1956, Blombergen established the possibility of constructing a quantum amplifier based on a solid paramagnetic substance, and in 1957 such an amplifier was built by Skovel, Feher, and Seidel. All quantum generators and amplifiers built before 1960 operated in the microwave range and were called masers. This name comes from the first letters of the English words "Microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation", which means "amplification of microwaves by stimulated emission."

The next stage of development is associated with the transfer of known methods to the optical range. In 1958, Townes and Shawlov theoretically substantiated the possibility of creating an optical quantum generator (LQG) based on a solid. In 1960, Meiman built the first pulsed laser based on a solid, a ruby. In the same year, the question of lasers and quantum amplifiers was independently analyzed by N. G. Basov, O. N. Krokhin, and Yu. M. Popov.

In 1961, the first gas (helium-neon) generator was created by Janavan, Bennett and Herriot. In 1962, the first semiconductor laser was created. Optical quantum generators (LQGs) are called lasers. The term "Laser" was formed as a result of replacing the letter "m" in the word maser with the letter "l" (from the English word "light").

After the creation of the first masers and lasers, work began aimed at their use in communication systems.

Fiber optics, as an original direction of technology, emerged in the early 50s. At this time, they learned to make thin two-layer fibers from various transparent materials (glass, quartz, etc.). Earlier it was predicted that if the optical properties of the inner ("core") and outer ("shell") parts of such a fiber are appropriately selected, then the light beam introduced through the end into the core will propagate only along it and be reflected from the shell. Even if the fiber is bent (but not too abruptly), the beam will obediently be held inside the core. Thus, a light beam - this synonym for a straight line - falling into an optical fiber is able to propagate along any curved path. There is a complete analogy with an electric current flowing through a metal wire, so a two-layer optical fiber is often called a light guide or light guide. Glass or quartz fibers, 2-3 times thicker than a human hair, are very flexible (they can be wound on a spool) and strong (stronger than steel filaments of the same diameter). However, the fibers of the 1950s were not transparent enough, and at a length of 5–10 m, light was completely absorbed in them.

In 1966, the idea was put forward of the fundamental possibility of using optical fibers for communication purposes. The technological search ended in success in 1970 - ultrapure quartz fiber was able to transmit a light beam at a distance of up to 2 km. In fact, in the same year, the ideas of laser communication and the possibilities of fiber optics "found each other", the rapid development of fiber-optic communication began: the emergence of new methods of manufacturing fibers; creation of other necessary elements, such as miniature lasers, photodetectors, optical connectors, etc.

Already in 1973-1974. the distance that the beam could travel along the fiber reached 20 km, and by the beginning of the 80s it exceeded 200 km. By the same time, the speed of information transmission over fiber-optic communication lines had increased to unprecedented values ​​- several billion bit / s. In addition, it turned out that fiber-optic communication lines have not only an ultra-high speed of information transfer, but also have a number of other advantages.

The light signal is not affected by external electromagnetic interference. Moreover, it is impossible to eavesdrop, that is, to intercept. Fiber light guides have excellent weight and size characteristics: the materials used have a low specific gravity, there is no need for heavy metal sheaths; simplicity of laying, installation, operation. Fiber light guides can be laid in ordinary underground cable ducts, they can be mounted on high-voltage transmission lines or power networks of electric trains, and in general they can be combined with any other communications. The characteristics of FOCLs do not depend on their length, on turning on or off additional lines - in electrical circuits, all this is not the case, and each such change requires painstaking adjustment work. In principle, sparking is impossible in optical fibers, and this opens up the prospect of using them in explosive and similar industries.

The cost factor is also very important. At the end of the last century, fiber communication lines, as a rule, were comparable in cost to wire lines, but over time, given the shortage of copper, the situation will certainly change. This conviction is based on the fact that the material of the fiber - quartz - has an unlimited resource of raw materials, while the basis of wire lines are now rare metals such as copper and lead. And it's not just about cost. If communication develops on a traditional basis, then by the end of the century all the copper and all the lead mined will be spent on the manufacture of telephone cables - but how to develop further?

Currently, optical communication lines occupy a dominant position in all telecommunication systems, from backbone networks to home distribution networks. Thanks to the development of fiber-optic communication lines, multiservice systems are being actively implemented, which allow bringing telephony, television and the Internet to the end consumer in one cable.

450 g... BC NS.- the ancient Greek philosophers Democritus and Cleoxenus proposed to create an optical torch telegraph.

1600 g. - the book of the English scientist Gilbert "On a magnet, magnetic bodies and a large magnet - the Earth." It described the already known properties of the magnet, as well as the author's own discoveries.

1663 g. - German scientist Otto von Guericke carried out experimental work to determine the phenomenon of electrostatic repulsion of unipolarly charged objects.

1729 g. - the Englishman Gray discovered the phenomenon of electrical conductivity.

1745 g. - The German physicist Ewald Jürgen von Kleist and the Dutch physicist Peter van Muschenbruck created the "Leiden jar" - the first capacitor.

1753 g. — Leipzig physicist Winkler discovered a way to transmit electric current through wires.

1761 g. - one of the greatest mathematicians, the St. Petersburg academician Leonard Euler, was the first to put forward the idea of ​​transmitting information using the oscillations of the ether.

1780 g. - Galvani discovered the first design of the detector, not artificial, but natural - biological.

1785 g. –French physicist Charles Coulomb - founder of electrostatics found that the force of interaction of electric charges is proportional to their values ​​and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

1793 g. - K. Stapp invented the "optical telegraph".

1794 g. - the first “optical telegraph” line was put into operation, built between Lille and Paris (about 250 km), which had 22 intermediate (relay) stations.

1800 g. - Volta invented a galvanic cell - the so-called "Voltaic pillar", which became the first direct current source.

1820 g. - Oerstedt discovered the connections between electric current and magnetic field. An electric current generates a magnetic field.

1820 g. –A. M. Ampere discovered the interaction of electric currents and established the law of this interaction (Ampere's law).

1832 g. - Pavel Lvovich Schilling invented a pointer telegraph apparatus, in which five arrows served as indicators.

1837 g. - American scientist C. Page created the so-called "grumbling wire".

1838- The German scientist K. A. Steingel invented the so-called grounding.

1838 g. - S. Morse invented the original uneven code.

1839g... - the longest at that time in the world line of "optical telegraph" between St. Petersburg and Warsaw (1200 km) was built.

1841 g. - under the leadership of Jacobi, the first telegraph line was built between the Winter Palace and the General Staff Building.

1844 g. - under the leadership of Morse, a telegraph line was built between Washington and Baltimore with a total length of 65 km.

1850 g. - B.S. Jacobi developed the world's first telegraph apparatus (three years earlier than Morse) with direct printing of received messages, in which, as he said, "the registration of signs was carried out using a typographic font."

1851 g. - Morse code has been slightly modified and recognized as an international code.

1855 g.– The first telegraph printing machine was invented by the French telegraph mechanic E. Baudot.

1858 g. - Winston invented a device that outputs information directly to the built-in telegraph tape (a prototype of a modern telegraph device).

1860 g. - Physics teacher at the Friedrichsdorf school (Germany) Philip Reis from improvised means (a barrel cork, a knitting needle, an old broken violin, a coil of insulated wire and a galvanic cell) created an apparatus to demonstrate the principle of the ear.

1868 g. –Mahlon Loomis demonstrated to a group of American congressmen and scientists the work of a prototype wireless communication line with a length of 22 km.

1869 g. - Professor of Kharkov University Yu. I. Morozov developed a transmitter - a prototype of a microphone.

July 30, 1872- M. Lumis was granted the world's first patent (No. 129971) for a wireless telegraph system.

1872 g. - Russian engineer A. N. Lodygin invented the first electric incandescent lighting lamp, which opened the era of electric vacuum technology.

1873 g... - English physicist W. Crookes invented a device - a "radiometer".

1873 g. –Maxwell combined all his works in the "Teaching about Electricity and Magnetism."

1874 g. - Bodo created a multiple wiring system with print.

1877 D.E. Hughes designed a telephone transmitter, which he called a microphone.

1877 g. - the first telephone exchange was built in the USA according to the project of the Hungarian engineer T. Puskas.

1878 g. –Stuart came to the conclusion that in the Earth's atmosphere there is an ionized region of the ionosphere - a conductive layer of the atmosphere, that is, the Earth and the ionosphere are capacitor plates.

1879 g. - The Russian scientist Mikhalsky was the first in the world to use carbon powder in a microphone. This principle has been used to this day.

1882 g.– P. M. Golubitsky invented a highly sensitive telephone and designed a desk telephone with a lever for automatic circuit switching by changing the position of the handset.

1883 g... - Edison discovered the effect of spraying the substance of a filament in an electric lamp.

1883 g... - P. M. Golubitsky created a telephone with two poles located eccentrically relative to the center of the membrane, which is still working.

1883 g. -NS. M. Golubitsky designed a microphone with carbon powder.

1886 g. - G. Hertz invented a method for detecting electromagnetic waves.

1887 g... - Russian inventor K. A. Mosnitsky created a "self-acting central switch" - the predecessor of automatic telephone exchanges (ATS).

1887 g. - the famous experiments of Heinrich Hertz were carried out, which proved the reality of radio waves, the existence of which followed from the theory of J.K. Maxwell.

1889 g. - American inventor A. G. Stronger received a patent for an automatic telephone exchange.

1890 g. - the famous French physicist E. Branly invented a device capable of reacting to electromagnetic radiation of the radio range. A coherer served as a detector in the receiver.

1893 g... - Russian inventors MF Freidenberg and SM Berdichevsky - Apostolov proposed their "telephone connector" - automatic telephone exchange with step seekers.

1895 g. - Freidenberg M.F. patented one of the most important units of decade-step automatic telephone exchanges - a predsector (a device for automatically searching for a called subscriber).

1896 g. - Freidenberg M. F. created a machine seeker with reverse control from the register installed in the subscriber's device.

April 25 (May 7) 1895... - the first public demonstration of the radio line by A.S. Popov. This day in our country is annually celebrated as Radio Day.

March 24 (12), 1896- with the help of A.S. Popov's equipment, the world's first text radiogram was transmitted, which was recorded on a telegraph tape.

1896 g. - Freudenberg patented the machine-type finder.

1896 g. - Berdichevsky - Apostolov created an original automatic telephone exchange system for 11 thousand numbers.

1898 g. - The world's longest air telephone trunk line (660 km) has been built between Moscow and St. Petersburg.

May 1899... - For the first time in audio form, on-air telegrams were listened to on a headset in Russia by A.S. Popov's assistants P.N. Rybkin and A.S. Troitsky.

1899 g. – A.S. Popov was the first to use radio communication to save the ship and people. The communication range exceeded 40 km.

1900 g. –The beginning of the radio equipment of the ships of the Russian navy, that is, the practical and regular use of radio communications in military affairs.

August 24, 1900- Russian scientist Konstantin Dmitrievich Persky introduced the concept of television “television”.

1904 g. Fleming, an Englishman, created a tube diode.

1906 g. - American Lee de Forest invented a lamp with a control electrode - a three-electrode lamp that provides the ability to amplify alternating currents.

July 25, 1907... - BL Rosing received "Privilege No. 18076" for the receiver for the "electric telescope". Tubes designed for receiving images were later called kinescopes.

1912 year. - V. I. Kovalenkov developed a generator lamp with an external anode cooled by water.

1913 year. - Meissner discovered the possibility of self-excitation of oscillations in a circuit containing an electron tube and an oscillating circuit.

1915 year. - Russian engineer B.I.Kovalenkov developed and applied the first duplex telephone transmission on triodes.

1918 H. - E. Armstrong invented the superheterodyne receiver.

1919 g. - Schottky invented the tetrode, which found practical application only in 1924-1929.

1922 year. - OV Losev discovered the effect of amplification and generation of high-frequency oscillations using crystals.

1922 year. - radio amateurs have discovered the property of short waves to spread over any distance due to refraction in the upper layers of the atmosphere and reflection from them.

1923 year. - Soviet scientist Losev OV was the first to observe the glow of a semiconductor (silicon carbide) diode when an electric current was passed through it.

March 1929- the first regular broadcasts began in Germany.

1930s- meter waves were mastered, propagating in a straight line, without bending around the earth's surface (i.e., within the line of sight).

1930 H. - Pentodes appeared on the basis of Langmuir's work.

April 29 and May 2, 1931- the first transmissions of television images by radio were made in the USSR. They were carried out with the decomposition of the image into 30 lines.

August 1931- The German scientist Manfred von Ardenne was the first in the world to publicly demonstrate a fully electronic television system based on a running beam sensor with a scan of 90 lines.

September 24, 1931–Soviet scientistpp. I. Kataev received priority for the invention of a transmission tube with charge filling, a mosaic target and switching using secondary electrons.

1934 year. - E. Armstrong invented frequency modulation (FM).

1936 year. - Soviet scientists P.V. Timofeev and P.V.Shmakov were issued a copyright certificate for a cathode-ray tube with image transfer.

1938 H. - in the USSR, the first experimental television centers were put into operation in Moscow and Leningrad. The decomposition of the transmitted image in Moscow was 343 lines, and in Leningrad - 240 lines at 25 frames per second. On July 25, 1940, the 441 line expansion standard was approved.

1938 H. - In the USSR, the serial production of console receivers for 343 lines of the TK-1 type with a screen size of 14 × 18 cm began.

1939 H. - E. Armstrong built the first radio station operating in the VHF range of radio waves.

1940s- decimeter and centimeter waves have been mastered.

1948 H. - American researchers led by Shockley invented a semiconductor triode - a transistor.

1949 H. - in the USSR, the serial production of KVN-49 TVs on a tube with a diameter of 17 cm began (developers V.K.Kenigson, N.M. Varshavsky, N.A. Nikolaevsky).

March 4, 1950- The first scientific center for the receiving television network was created in Moscow.

1953 –1954- In the USSR, the first domestic VHF radio relay communication equipment "Crab" was developed. It was used on the communication line between Krasnovodsk and Baku across the Caspian Sea.

Mid 50s- In the USSR, a family of radio relay equipment "Strela" has been developed.

October 4, 1957- The first Soviet artificial Earth satellite (AES) was launched into orbit. The era of space communications began.

1958 year. - On the basis of the R-600 operating in the 4 GHz range, the first main radio relay line Leningrad-Tallinn was put into operation.

1960 year. - The first transmission of color television took place in Leningrad from the experimental station of the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute of Communications.

1965 year. - the plant named after Kozitsky developed and produced the first tube-semiconductor TV "Evening".

November 29, 1965- The first transmission of color TV programs via the SECAM system from Moscow to Paris via the communications satellite "Molniya-1" was carried out.

1966 year. - The Kuntsevsky Mechanical Plant in Moscow has developed and produced a small-sized portable TV "Yunost", assembled entirely on transistors.

May 28, 1966- The first transmission of color television programs via the SECAM system from Paris to Moscow via the communications satellite "Molniya-1" was carried out.

November 2, 1967- A network of stations for receiving television programs from artificial Earth satellites "Molniya - 1", called "Orbit", was put into operation.

November 4, 1967- The All-Union Radio and Television Transmitting Station of the USSR Ministry of Communications was put into operation.

1970 year. - Ultrapure silica fiber made it possible to transmit the light beam up to 2 km.

September 5, 1982–The first satellite TV bridge "Moscow-Los Angeles" dedicated to the dialogue between musical groups of the USSR and the USA.

April 1988- In the USSR, the use of a set of portable television journalistic equipment with a video recorder began.

February 1999- the beginning of multichannel digital satellite TV broadcasting ("NTV-plus"). Transmission of up to 69 TV channels.

2004 year. - The Government of the Russian Federation makes a decision to introduce digital TV broadcasting via the European DVB system.

Communication lines arose simultaneously with the advent of the electric telegraph. The first communication lines were cable. However, due to the imperfect design of cables, underground cable communication lines soon gave way to overhead ones. The first long-distance air line was built in 1854 between St. Petersburg and Warsaw. In the early 70s of the last century, an overhead telegraph line was built from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok with a length of about 10 thousand km. In 1939, the world's longest high-frequency telephone trunk line Moscow - Khabarovsk with a length of 8300 km was put into operation.

The creation of the first cable lines is associated with the name of the Russian scientist P.L.Schilling. Back in 1812, Schilling in St. Petersburg demonstrated the explosions of sea mines, using for this purpose an insulated conductor he had created.

In 1851, simultaneously with the construction of the railway between Moscow and St. Petersburg, a telegraph cable was laid, insulated with gutta-percha. The first submarine cables were laid in 1852 through the Northern Dvina and in 1879 across the Caspian Sea between Baku and Krasnovodsk. In 1866, a cable transatlantic telegraph communication line between France and the United States was put into operation,

In 1882-1884. the first urban telephone networks in Russia were built in Moscow, Petrograd, Riga, Odessa. In the 90s of the last century, the first cables with up to 54 cores were suspended on the city telephone networks of Moscow and Petrograd. In 1901, the construction of the underground city telephone network began.

The first designs of communication cables, dating back to the beginning of the 20th century, made it possible to carry out telephone transmission over short distances. These were the so-called city telephone cables with air-paper insulation of cores and twisting them in pairs. In 1900-1902. A successful attempt was made to increase the transmission distance by methods of artificially increasing the inductance of cables by including inductors in the circuit (Pupin's proposal), as well as using conductive cores with a ferromagnetic winding (Krarup's proposal). Such methods at that stage made it possible to increase the range of telegraph and telephone communications several times.

An important stage in the development of communication technology was the invention, and since 1912-1913. mastering the production of electronic tubes. In 1917, V. I. Kovalenkov developed and tested on the line a telephone amplifier based on electronic tubes. In 1923, telephone communication with amplifiers was established on the Kharkov-Moscow-Petrograd line.

The development of multichannel transmission systems began in the 1930s. Subsequently, the desire to expand the spectrum of transmitted frequencies and increase the capacity of lines led to the creation of new types of cables, the so-called coaxial. But their mass production refers only to 1935, at the time of the appearance of new high-quality dielectrics such as escapon, high-frequency ceramics, polystyrene, styroflex, etc. long distance programs. The first coaxial line for 240 HF telephony channels was laid in 1936. The first transatlantic submarine cables, laid in 1856, were used to organize only telegraph communication, and only 100 years later, in 1956, an underwater coaxial trunk line was built between Europe and America for multichannel telephony.

In 1965-1967. experimental waveguide communication lines for the transmission of broadband information appeared, as well as cryogenic superconducting cable lines with very low attenuation. Since 1970, work has been actively developed to create light guides and optical cables using visible and infrared radiation in the optical wavelength range.

The development of an optical fiber and the production of cw generation of a semiconductor laser played a decisive role in the rapid development of fiber-optic communication. By the early 1980s, fiber-optic communication systems were developed and tested in real conditions. The main areas of application of such systems are the telephone network, cable television, intra-facility communications, computer technology, monitoring and control systems for technological processes, etc.

Urban and intercity fiber-optic communication lines have been laid in Russia and other countries. They are assigned a leading place in the scientific and technological progress of the communications industry.

Cabling and wiring products and accessories

The history of the appearance and development of power lines in Russia

The first case of the transmission of an electrical signal over a distance is considered to be an experiment conducted in the middle of the 18th century by the Abbot J-A Nollet: two hundred monks of the Carthusian monastery, at his direction, took hold of a metal wire with their hands and stood in a line more than a mile long. When an inquisitive abbot discharged the electric capacitor onto the wire, all the monks immediately became convinced of the reality of electricity, and the experimenter of the speed of its propagation. Of course, these two hundred martyrs did not realize that they formed the first power line in history.

1874 Russian engineer F.A. Pirotsky suggested using railway rails as a conductor of electrical energy. At that time, the transmission of electricity through wires was accompanied by large losses (during the transmission of direct current, losses in the wire reached 75%). It was possible to reduce line losses by increasing the conductor cross-section. Pirotsky carried out experiments on the transmission of energy along the rails of the Sestroretsk railway. Both rails were isolated from the ground, one of them served as a direct wire, the other as a return one. The inventor tried to use the idea for the development of urban transport and put a small trailer on the guide rails. However, this turned out to be unsafe for pedestrians. However, much later such a system was developed in the modern metro.

The famous electrical engineer Nikola Tesla dreamed of creating a system for wireless transmission of energy to any part of the planet. In 1899, he took up the construction of a tower for transatlantic communications, hoping, under the guise of a commercially profitable enterprise, to implement his electrical ideas. Under his leadership, a giant 200 kW radio station was built in the state of Colorado. In 1905, a test run of the radio station took place. According to eyewitnesses, lightning flashed around the tower, an ionized medium glowed. Journalists claimed that the inventor lit the sky in an area thousands of miles above the ocean. However, such a communication system soon turned out to be too expensive, and ambitious plans remained unfulfilled, only giving rise to a whole mass of theories and rumors (from the "death rays" to the Tunguska meteorite - everything was attributed to the activities of N. Tesla).

Thus, the most optimal way out at that time was overhead power lines. By the early 1890s, it became clear that it was cheaper and more practical to build power plants near fuel and water resources, and not, as was done before, near energy consumers. For example, the first thermal power plant in our country was built in 1879, in the then capital of St. Petersburg, specifically to illuminate the Liteiny Bridge, in 1890 a single-phase power plant was launched in Pushkino, and Tsarskoe Selo, according to contemporaries, “became the first a city in Europe, which was entirely and exclusively illuminated by electricity. " However, these resources were often removed from large cities, traditionally serving as centers of industry. It became necessary to transmit electricity over long distances. The theory of transmission was simultaneously developed by the Russian scientist D.A. Lachinov, and the French electrical engineer M. Despres. At the same time, the American George Westinghouse was engaged in the creation of transformers, but the world's first transformer (with an open core) was created by P.N. Yablochkov, who back in 1876 received a patent for it.

At the same time, the question arose about the use of alternating or direct current. This issue was also interested in the creator of the arc lamp P.N. Yablochkov, who foreshadowed a great future for high voltage alternating current. These conclusions were supported by another Russian scientist - M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky.

In 1891, he built the first three-phase power transmission line, which reduced losses by up to 25%. At that time, the scientist worked for the company AEG, owned by T. Edison. This company was invited to participate in the International Electrotechnical Exhibition in Frankfurt am Main, where the issue of further use of alternating or direct current was decided. An international test commission was organized under the chairmanship of the German scientist G. Helmholtz. The members of the commission included the Russian engineer R.E. Klasson. It was assumed that the commission would test all the proposed systems and give an answer to the question about the choice of the type of current and a promising power supply system.

M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky decided to transfer the energy of the waterfall to the river by means of electricity. Neckar (near Laufen) on the exhibition grounds in Frankfurt. The distance between these two points was 170 km, although up to this point the transmission distance usually did not exceed 15 km. In just one year, the Russian scientist had to stretch power lines on wooden poles, create the necessary motors and transformers ("induction coils", as they were then called), and he brilliantly coped with this task in cooperation with the Swiss company "Oerlikon". In August 1891, a thousand incandescent lamps powered by current from the Laufen hydroelectric power station were lit for the first time at the exhibition. A month later, Dolivo-Dobrovolsky's engine set in motion a decorative waterfall - there was a kind of energy chain, a small artificial waterfall was powered by the energy of a natural waterfall, 170 km away from the first.

Thus, the main energy problem of the late 19th century was resolved - the problem of transmission of electricity over long distances. In 1893, engineer A.N. Shchensnovich is building the world's first industrial power plant on these principles in the Novorossiysk workshops of the Vladikavkaz railway.

In 1891, on the basis of the Telegraph School in St. Petersburg, the Electrotechnical Institute was created, which began training personnel for the coming electrification of the country.

Wires for power transmission lines were initially imported from abroad, however, rather quickly they began to be produced at the Kolchuginsky Brass and Copper Rolling Plant, the United Cable Plants enterprise and the Podobedov plant. But the supports in Russia have already been produced - although they were previously used mainly for telegraph and telephone wires. At first, difficulties arose in everyday life - the illiterate population of the Russian Empire was suspicious of the pillars decorated with tablets on which a skull was drawn.

The massive construction of power transmission lines begins at the end of the nineteenth century, this is due to the electrification of industry. The main task that was solved at this stage was the connection of power plants with industrial areas. The voltages were low, as a rule, up to 35 kV, the task of interconnection in the network was not put forward. In these conditions, the tasks were easily solved with the help of wooden single-column and U-shaped supports. The material was available, cheap and fully met the requirements of the time. Over the years, the design of supports and wires has been continuously improved.

For mobile electric vehicles, the principle of underground electric traction was known, which was used to power trains in Cleveland and Budapest. However, this method was inconvenient in operation, and underground cable power lines were used only in cities for street lighting and power supply of private houses. Until now, the cost of underground transmission lines exceeds the cost of overhead lines by 2-3 times.

In 1899, the First All-Russian Electrotechnical Congress took place in Russia. It was chaired by Nikolai Pavlovich Petrov, who was then chairman of the Imperial Russian Technical Society, professor at the Military Engineering Academy and the Technological Institute. The congress brought together over five hundred people interested in electrical engineering, including people of a wide variety of professions and with a wide variety of education. They were united either by their common work in the field of electrical engineering, or by a common interest in the development of electrical engineering in Russia. Until 1917, seven such congresses were held, the new government continued this tradition.

In 1902, the power supply of the Baku oil fields was carried out, the power transmission line transmitted electricity with a voltage of 20 kV.

In 1912, the construction of the world's first peat-fired power plant began on a peat bog near Moscow. The idea belonged to R.E. Klasson, who took advantage of the fact that coal, which was used mainly for power plants of that time, had to be brought to Moscow. This raised the price of electricity, and the peat power plant with a 70 km transmission line paid off pretty quickly. It still exists - now it is GRES-3 in the city of Noginsk.

The electric power industry in the Russian Empire in those years mainly belonged to foreign firms and entrepreneurs, for example, a controlling stake in the largest joint-stock company Electric Lighting Society 1886, which built almost all power plants in pre-revolutionary Russia, belonged to the German company Siemens and Halske, already known to us from history cable building (see "CABLE-news", No. 9, pp. 28-36). Another joint-stock company, United Cable Plants, was managed by the AEG concern. Much of the equipment was imported from abroad. Russian energy and its development lagged sharply behind the advanced countries of the world. By 1913, the Russian Empire ranked 8th in the world in terms of the amount of electricity generated.

With the outbreak of the First World War, the production of equipment for power transmission lines declined - the front needed other products that could be produced by the same factories - telephone field wire, mine cable, enameled wire. Some of these products were first mastered by domestic production, since many imports were stopped due to the war. During the war, the "Electric Joint Stock Company of the Donetsk Basin" built a power plant with a capacity of 60,000 kW and delivered equipment for it.

By the end of 1916, the fuel and raw materials crisis caused a sharp drop in production at factories, which continued in 1917. After the October Socialist Revolution, all factories and enterprises were nationalized by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars (Council of People's Commissars). By order of the Supreme Council of National Economy of the RSFSR in December 1918, all enterprises associated with the production of wires and power lines were transferred to the disposal of the Department of the electrical industry. Almost everywhere a collegial administration was created, in which both workers representing the "new government" and representatives of the former administrative and engineering corps took part. Immediately after coming to power, the Bolsheviks paid great attention to electrification, for example, already during the years of the civil war, despite the devastation, blockade and intervention, 51 power plants with a total capacity of 3,500 kW were built in the country.

The GOELRO plan, drawn up in 1920 under the leadership of the former St. Petersburg electrician for power lines and cable networks, in the future Academician G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, forced the development of all types of electrical engineering. According to him, twenty thermal and ten hydroelectric stations with a total capacity of 1 million 750 thousand kW were to be built. The department of the electrical industry in 1921 was transformed into the Main Directorate of the Electrical Industry of the Supreme Council of the National Economy - "Glavelectro". The first head of Glavelectro was V.V. Kuibyshev.

In 1923, the "First All-Russian Agricultural and Handicraft Exhibition" was opened in the Gorky Park. As a result of the exhibition, the Russkabel plant received a first-degree diploma for its contribution to the electrification and manufacture of high-voltage cables.

As the voltage increased and, accordingly, the wire became heavier, a transition was made from wooden to metal supports for power lines. In Russia, the first line on metal supports appeared in 1925 - a double-circuit 110 kV overhead line, connecting Moscow and Shaturskaya GRES.

In 1926, the country's first central dispatching service was created in the Moscow power system, which still exists today.

In 1928, the USSR began to produce its own power transformers, which were produced by the specialized Moscow Transformer Plant.

In the 1930s, electrification continues at an ever-increasing pace. Large power plants are being created (Dneproges, Stalingradskaya GRES, etc.), the voltage of the transmitted electricity is increasing (for example, the Dneproges-Donbass transmission line operates with a voltage of 154 kV; and the Nizhne-Svirskaya hydroelectric power station's transmission line - Leningrad with a voltage of 220 kV). At the end of the 1930s, the Moscow-Volzhskaya HPP line was being built, operating with an ultra-high voltage of 500 kV. United power systems of large regions are emerging. All this required the improvement of the metal supports. Their designs were continuously improved, a number of standard supports were expanded, and a massive transition was made to bolted and lattice supports.

Wooden poles are also used at this time, but their area is usually limited to voltages up to 35 kV. They link mainly non-industrial rural areas.

During the pre-war five-year plans (1929-1940), large power systems were created on the territory of the country - in the Ukraine, Belarus, Leningrad, and Moscow.

During the war, out of the total installed capacity of the power plants, ten million kW were taken out of operation, five million kW. During the war years, 61 large power plants were destroyed, a large amount of equipment was taken by the invaders to Germany. Some of the equipment was blown up, some were evacuated in record time to the Urals and the East of the country and put into operation there to ensure the work of the defense industry. During the war years, a 100 MW turbine unit was launched in Chelyabinsk.

Soviet power engineers, with their heroic work, ensured the operation of power plants and networks during the difficult war years. During the advance of the fascist armies to Moscow in 1941, the Rybinsk Hydroelectric Power Station was put into operation, which provided power supply to Moscow with a lack of fuel. The Novomoskovsk state district power station, captured by the Nazis, was destroyed. The Kashirskaya GRES supplied electricity to the industry of Tula, and at one time a transmission line was operating, crossing the territory captured by the Nazis. This power line was restored by power engineers in the rear of the German army. The Volkhov hydroelectric power station, which suffered from the German aviation, was also put back into operation. Electricity was supplied to Leningrad from it along the bottom of Lake Ladoga (via a specially laid cable) throughout the blockade.

In 1942, to coordinate the work of three regional energy systems: Sverdlovsk, Perm and Chelyabinsk, the first United Dispatch Office was created - the Ural Ural. In 1945, the ODU of the Center was created, which marked the beginning of the further integration of energy systems into a single network of the entire country.

After the war, power grids were not only repaired and restored, but new ones were also built. By 1947, the USSR became the second largest producer of electricity in the world. The United States remained in first place.

In the 50s, new hydroelectric power plants were being built - Volzhskaya, Kuibyshevskaya, Kakhovskaya, Yuzhnouralskaya.

Since the end of the 50s, the stage of rapid growth of power grid construction begins. Each five-year period the length of overhead power lines doubled. More than thirty thousand kilometers of new power lines were built annually. At this time, reinforced concrete supports for power lines with "prestressed racks" are being massively introduced and used. They usually had lines with voltages of 330 and 220 kV.

In June 1954, a nuclear power plant began operation in the city of Obninsk with a capacity of 5 MW. It was the first pilot-industrial NPP in the world.

Abroad, the first industrial nuclear power plant was commissioned only in 1956 in the English city of Calder Hall. A year later, a nuclear power plant was commissioned in the American Shippingport.

High voltage direct current transmission lines are also being built. The first experimental transmission line of this type was created in 1950, in the direction of Kashira-Moscow, 100 km long, with a capacity of 30 MW and a voltage of 200 kV. The Swedes were the second on this path. In 1954, they connected the power system of the island of Gotland along the bottom of the Baltic Sea with the power system of Sweden by means of a 98-kilometer single-pole transmission line with a voltage of 100 kV and a capacity of 20 MW.

In 1961, the first units of the world's largest Bratsk hydroelectric power station were launched.

The unification of metal supports, carried out in the late 60s, actually determined the basic set of support structures that are still used today. Over the past 40 years, as well as for metal supports, the structures of reinforced concrete supports have practically not changed. Today, almost all network construction in Russia and the CIS countries is based on the scientific and technological base of the 60-70s.

The world practice of building power transmission lines did not differ much from the domestic one until the mid-60s. However, in recent decades, our practices have diverged significantly. In the West, reinforced concrete did not receive such distribution as a material for supports. They followed the path of building lines on metal multifaceted supports.

In 1977, the Soviet Union produced more electricity than all European countries combined - 16% of world production.

By connecting regional power grids, the Unified Energy System of the USSR is created - the largest electric power system, which was then connected to the power systems of the countries of Eastern Europe and formed an international power system called "Mir". By 1990, the UES of the USSR included 9 out of 11 power supply networks of the country, covering 2/3 of the territory of the USSR, where more than 90% of the population lived.

It should be noted that in terms of a number of technical indicators (for example, the scale of power plants and the voltage levels of high-voltage power transmissions), the Soviet Union occupied the leading positions in the world.

In the 1980s, an attempt was made in the USSR to introduce multifaceted supports made by the Volzhsky Mechanical Plant into mass construction. However, the lack of the necessary technology determined the design flaws of these supports, which led to the failure. They returned to this issue only in 2003.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, power engineers faced new problems. Very little funds were allocated to maintain the condition of power transmission lines and their restoration; the decline of industry led to the degradation and even destruction of many power transmission lines. There was such a phenomenon as the theft of wires and cables for their subsequent delivery to the collection points of non-ferrous metal as scrap metal. Despite the fact that many of the "earners" perish in this criminal business, and their income is very insignificant, the number of such cases has practically not decreased to this day. This is caused by a sharp decline in the standard of living in the regions, since this crime is mainly engaged in by marginalized people without work and place of residence.

In addition, communications with the countries of Eastern Europe and the former republics of the USSR, previously connected by a single energy system, were broken. In November 1993, due to a large power shortage in Ukraine, a forced transition to separate operation of the UES of Russia and the UES of Ukraine was carried out, which led to the separate operation of the UES of Russia with the rest of the power systems that are part of the Mir power system. In the future, the parallel operation of the power systems that are part of the "Mir", with the central dispatch office in Prague was not resumed.

Over the past 20 years, the physical deterioration of high voltage networks has increased significantly and, according to some researchers, has reached more than 40%. In distribution networks, the situation is even worse. This is compounded by the continuous increase in energy consumption. Obsolescence of equipment also occurs. Most of the facilities on the technical level correspond to their western counterparts 20-30 years ago. Meanwhile, the world energy does not stand still, prospecting work is being carried out in the field of creating new types of power lines: cryogenic, cryoresistor, semi-open, open, etc.

The domestic electric power industry is faced with the most important issue of solving all these new challenges and tasks.

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