Russian culture in the second half of the XIX century. In the second half of the XIX century in the second half of the XIX century
Cancellation of serfdom, reforms of the 60-70s., Lifting the social movement, the approval of capitalism - all this facilitated the growth of education, further development of culture. The leading role in art in the pureform period belonged to the advanced dispenser intelligentsia.
In Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The fastest pace developed primary education. Along with the church-ski and classmates of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment, Zemsky schools, which were kept at the expense of local depths. By the end of the century in the countryside, the primary education covered several million students. Sunday schools for adults acted in many cities. But the number of competent in Russia was in 1897 only 21% of the country's total population.
By the end of 1914, there were about 124 thousand initial educational institutions in Russia, which studied a little more than 30% of children aged 8 to 11 years (in cities - 46.6%).
After hot disputes on the nature of secondary education, it was classical gymnasium, in which up to 40% of the study time was assigned to the study of Latin and Greek languages. In 1862, the first women's gymnasiums open. Special ministerial circular ("On the kitchen kits") was limited in the gymnasium of children of poor parents.
Successes in the field of higher education were concluded both in increasing the number of higher educational institutions and in the increase in the number of students. In the current period, along with the opening of new universities (other higher educational institutions (Medicochargic Academy in St. Petersburg, various institutions in St. Petersburg and Moscow) were opened.
In the 1913/14 school year, Russia had 63 state higher education institutions in which more than 71 thousand students were studied.
Literature
In the current period, the literature continues to occupy the leading place in Russian culture. Realism is still the prevailing direction. A feature of the realism was a constant desire possible to broadly reflect the reality, reveal and implancing the public lie. At the same time, the literature of realism argued positive public ideals. Nature, patriotism, protection of the rights and interests of the masses and personality, the struggle for social justice - these are characteristic features inherent in advanced Russian literature.
The names of I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, F. Dostoevsky, I. Goncharov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrina, L. Tolstova, A. Chekhov entered the treasury of world literature. The advanced literature that responded to the most important social and political events of that time had a significant impact on the development of the theater, music and visual art.
Theatre
Russian theater culture of the second half of the XIX century. Natural and humanism, ideological and emotional wealth, deep reproduction of human characters and historical truth were inherent. Continuing the traditions of Fononovin, Griboedov, Pushkin, A. Ostrovsky with his work completed the creation of Russian national drama (Pieces "Naddannica", "His people", "Thunderstorm", "Profitable place", etc.).
The center of the theater life of Russia was rightfully the Small Theater. The leading place in his repertoire was occupied by Ostrovsky's plays. The Great Actress M. Yermolov created a lot of memorable female images on the scene. Among them are the image of Catherine from the "Thunderstorm" is Ostrovsky.
Music
From the middle of the XIX century. The musical life of Russia increasingly leaves the walls of the salons for the elected. In 1859, Russian Music Society is created in St. Petersburg. At the beginning of the 60s. M. Balakirev was founded in St. Petersburg a free music school. The first Russian conservatory opens in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At the same time around the composer of Balakirev in St. Petersburg there is a circle of composers, known as the "mighty hand" (M. Mussorgsky, N. Roman Korsakov, A. Borodin, C. Kyui). In its symphony and opera works, composers of the "mighty bunch" included the motives of folk songs. An important place in their work was occupied by operas on historical topics: "Boris Godunov" Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" Borodin, "Tsarist Bride" of Roman Corsakov. The top of the Russian musical art of the second half of the XIX century. It was the work of P. Tchaikovsky. His operas ("Eugene Onegin", "Peak Lady"), ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "Nutcracker"), romances forever entered the story not only Russian, but also world art.
Painting
On the second half of the XIX century. There is a time of lifting and heyday in Russia of the national realistic and democratic school of painting. In 1863, the Group of the most talented students of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, headed by I. Kramsky, demanded freedom in choosing a plot to fulfill final work. Having received a refusal, they came out of the Academy and created Artel free artists. In 1870, at the initiative of I. Kramsky, M. Myasedov, N. Ge, V. Pereova, a partnership of artistic mobile exhibitions was organized in St. Petersburg. The ideological leader of the mother-in-law became Kramskaya, who created the whole Gallean portraits of Russian writers, artists, public figures. The highest achievements of Russian realism in painting are associated with the work of I. Repin ("Burlaki on the Volga", "did not wait", "the Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan") and V. Surikov ("Morning Strelets", "Fear Morozova", "Conquest Siberia Ermacom ").
Development of art in the second half of the XIX century. In Russia, one of the most remarkable pages in the history of Russian and world culture.
Start of the XX century - "Silver Century" of Russian Culture
The Russian culture of the beginning of the new century was a worthy of the successor of Russian culture XIX century, although its development was held in other historical conditions.
The beginning of the 20th century is the time of creative take-off of Russian science, literature, art, peculiar cultural revival. It seemed to decay for several flows: on the one hand, the further development of the best democratic traditions, on the other hand, the revision of the old, contradictory and rebellious searches of the new, attempt to maximize self-expression. In many ways, it was a culture for the "chosen", far from not only from the people, but also from wide circles of the intelligentsia. But it was she who marked the beginning of a new direction in the art of Russia.
New directions in the literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Literature still played an extremely important role in the cultural life of the country. Along with the realistic direction (L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Kubrin, M. Gorky, etc.) in Russian literature, especially in poetry, new directions appear. It was associated with the names of L. Andreeva, A. Bloka, V. Brysov, A. Akhmatova, I. Northernina, V. Mayakovsky and others. A characteristic feature of new directions in poetry - decadentism, symbolism - was not only a kind of protest and rejection of reality , but also search for new ways of self-expression.
Music
The development of musical art, as in previous years, was closely connected with the names of composers - members of the "mighty bunch". However, new names appear in Russian music. At this time, A. Glazunov, S. Rakhmaninov, A. Skryabin, I. Stravinsky, S. Prokofiev begin their composer activity. In their work, national traditions are associated with active searches in the field of musical form. Many wonderful singers gave the Russian vocal school. Among them, the stars of the first magnitude were F. Shalyapin, L. Sobinov, A. Nezhdanov.
Painting
For Russian painting, however, as for the entire visual art of the beginning of the XX century, two main trends are characterized: traditional realistic and modernist. The realistic direction in painting was represented by I. Repin, who wrote for 1909-1916. A number of portraits (P. Stolypin, L. Tolstoy, V. Korolenko, V. Bekhtereva, etc.), his student V. Serov, whose portraits are the real psychological characteristics of writers, artists, doctors. This period also includes the activities of the "Poet of Russian Nature" I. Levitan.
Modernism was associated with the waste of a number of artists from established standards in painting and search for new art decisions. Modernism was not a purely Russian phenomenon in visual art. He touched upon all countries, especially France and Italy. At the beginning of the century, the painting of impressionism is developing in Russia. Her adherents were K. Korovin, V. Borisov-Musatov, and others. The twin-bar of modernism in Russia can be considered M. Vrubel. The topic of the demon, for decades the former major in his work, embodied dissatisfaction, longing, and anger of a rolling man.
Genuine leaders of abstractionism not only in Russia, but also in world painting, V. Kandinsky and K. Malevich became.
It should be noted that the cultural life in Russia supported the pleiad of Russian patients (S. Dyagilev, S. Mammoths, S. Morozov, etc.), which played a significant role in the development of Russian culture.
Worldwide recognition of Russian culture. The culture of Russia began the beginning of the XX century. Reached amazing heights. She contributed not only to the growth of the self-consciousness of the peoples of Russia, but also influenced the entire European culture.
Russian art has received extensive international recognition. Organized by S. Dyagilev "Russian seasons in Paris" (1906-1912) were noticeable events in European cultural life.
So in 1906 the Parisians presented the exhibition "Two centuries of Russian painting and sculpture", which Dyagilev completed the concert of Russian music. Success was awesome. Next year, Parisians could get acquainted with Russian music from Glinka to Scriabin. In 1908, F. Shalyapin spoke with exceptional success in Paris, who fulfilled the party of Tsar Boris in Opere Mussorgsky "Boris Godunov". Truly a unique phenomenon was the rise of the Russian ballet at the beginning of the century. From 1909 to 1912 in Paris, the Russian Sea Zones of Ballet was held annually, which became an event of a global scale. The names of Russian dancers - Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Vaclav Nizhinsky were blocked on newsstands. Unprecedented success fell to the share of Ballets I. Stravinsky "Firebird", "Parsley", Spring Sacred.
It is interesting to know:
I. Repin In the picture "The Cossacks write a letter to Turkish Sultan" painted one of the Cossacks from the famous Russian writer V. Gilyarovsky, the author of the book "Moscow and Muscovites". Sculptor N. Andreev sculpted from him Taras Bulbu for bas-relief at the monument to N. Gogol in Moscow.
Despite the relatively low level of literacy in Russia (less than 30% by 1913), newspapers, magazines, books are becoming increasingly distributed. On the eve of the First World War, 2915 journals and newspapers were published in the country, and in the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan).
References:
V. S. Koshelev, I.V. Orzhovsky, V.I. Sinitsa / World History of the New Time XIX - NCH. XX century, 1998.
The era of liberal reforms and the rapid transformations of all aspects of the life of the Russian society affected the scope of art. Here, the desire for novelty was expressed in the fight against dead-class classic traditions for the new content of art, for his active invasion of life. The forefront is put forward by the moral side of art, his civil meaning. "To write without a goal and hope for the benefit that I strongly can not," said L.N. Tolstoy only entering the literature. These words are very characteristic of the transformation era. Progressive writers were grouped around the magazines "Contemporary" and "Domestic Notes", composers united the circle MA Balakirev, who entered the story under the name "mighty bunch". The overall task of the struggle for realism, nationality and national originality gave rise to mutual influence and mutual enrichment of literature, painting and music.
Painting
Advanced artists conducted an irreconcilable struggle with official court art, the routine system of the Academy of Arts, which, giving their students high professional skills, categorically resisted all new trends, forever "stuck" in classicism.
The inability to realize itself within the Academy led to an event known in the history of culture as a "Bunth of Fourteen". In 1863, all the strongest students (including I.N. Kramskaya, K.E. Makovsky, etc.) refused to participate in the competition for a large gold medal after the Council of the Academy rejected their desire for the free choice of the topic and suggested writing The picture either on the plot of the Vidnavannavian Saga - "Pier in Valhale", or on the theme "Liberation of the Peasants", who interpreted exclusively loyal. It was the first organized protest against the academic routine, for which the artists were glad by unreliable and the unlawful police officer was established behind them.
At the exit from the ACADEMY "Protestants" organized artel artists, began to live together and work, taking over the sample of the communion described in the Roman N.G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?". This form of the organization was extremely popular among student youth. Organizer Artel spoke I.N. Kramskaya. The artel existed for a long time (until 1870), after which it was broken. Soon, all opposition forces in the visual arts combined the partnership of mobile art exhibitions.
With the release of "fourteen" the authority of the Academy was strongly undermined. A significant role in the preparation of art personnel began to play the Moscow School of Painting and Sciences (from 1865, after the creation of the architectural department named by the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture). In terms of its composition and the situation, it was much more democratic than the Academy of Arts in the jurisdiction of the royal court. Here are many people from the lower estates. School finished A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin, V.G. Perov et al. Artists who played a huge role in the development of Russian realism.
In general, the 1860s. Began the beginning of a new significant stage of development of Russian art. In these years, the flourishing of Russian realism begins. The main task of the artist becomes recreation with all possible persuasiveness of the real event-symbol of Russian reality.
One of the most prominent painters of that time was Vasily Grigorievich Perov. Like many other artists of that time, he deliberately pointed attention on the shadow sides of the society, criticizing the remnants of the serfstone. The main content of Perova's creativity was the image of the life of a simple people, the peasantry in the advantage. Loud scandalous fame received the picture "Rural Cross Passion for Easter" completed in 1861. In an effort to see the disgusting of the peasant existence in the tremendous village of Perov deliberately thickens paints: Stressed dusty landscape (gloomy sky, nude tung tree, dirt, puddles), grotesque characters - everything should work on the disclosure of the author's plan. This picture is typical for Russian painting of the 1860s. For this generation of Russian artists, it was most important to give a social assessment of the depicted scene, therefore, as a rule, a deep and multifaceted characteristic of individual characters retreated into the background. The scandalivity of the "rural godfather for Easter" was so obvious that she was immediately removed from the permanent exhibition of society to the promotion of artists (where she was first exhibited) and until 1905 forbidden to exhibit and / or reproduce. A similar, although significantly smaller resonance caused the next job of Perov - "Tea Party in Mytishchi".
For about two years of Perov as a pensioner of the Academy, he conducted abroad, however, without waiting for the end of the pensioner's term returned to his homeland, because considered the main task of serving his people. This desire to go home is also a new feature characteristic of the time of the beginning of the reign of Alexander II (and before and after the artists, in contrast, they sought to stay in Europe for the beginning, seeing the only possibility of free creativity). After the return, he creates the best works: "Ceremonies of the Deader" (1865), "Troika" (1866) and "Last Kabak from the Ozda" (1868). Specific images in these pictures of Perov will develop into broad generalizations of typical features of Russian life.
In the early 1870s. Perov created a number of portraits. In the advantage, he created portraits of writers and artists, exercising the idea of \u200b\u200bP.M., Tretyakov on the perpetuation of images of outstanding figures of Russian culture. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to name portraits A.N. Ostrovsky and F.M. Dostoevsky. In contrast to the previous works, Perov in portraits to the fore there are deep psychologism and penetration into the essence of the personality and the nature of the person depicted.
The evolution of Perov's creativity - from social satire ("rural procession for Easter") to the social drama ("Troika"), and then to the creation of positive images of cultural workers or people from the people; From the detailed narration to the emotional artistic image - is characteristic of the development of Russian painting of those years.
The flourishing of Russian realistic art II floor. XIX century Insoligably linked to the activities of the partnership of mobile art exhibitions. In the charter of the partnership approved in 1870, it was said that his main goal was to "acquaint Russia with Russian art." The exhibitions were arranged in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and then headed to other major cities. "Movement" was unique in scope and duration of art and public phenomenon. It existed over 50 years (until 1923), spending 48 exhibitions during this time. Great help to M. M. M. Tretyakov who bought all the best works of their works. Later, the terms "Mobile", "Movement" were often used to designate the entire democratic direction in Russian realistic art 1870 - 1880s.
The program of their activities, Movie is largely obliged to Ivan Nikolayevich Kramsky. The main place in his work was held by a portrait. The best works in this genre are considered to be a self-portrait (1867) and a portrait of L.N. Tolstoy (1873). Along with the portrait of Dostoevsky, Perov, the portrait of the Tolstoy Brush Kramsky is one of the tops of Russian portrait painting II floor. XIX century
The deep disclosure of the inner world of a person, manifested in portraits of Kramsky, is characteristic and for his paintings. One of the most famous - "Christ in the desert" on the gospel plot. The struggle with temptation and overcoming weakness, the transition from painful thinking to the willingness to act, to go to self-sacrifice - all this is expressed in the guise of Christ.
The same moral philosophical questions were worried about Nikolai Nikolayevich, whose creativity is one of the most difficult and at the same time significant phenomena in Russian art II. XIX century Ga inspired the idea of \u200b\u200bmoral cultivation of man and humanity, characteristic of the celesties faith in moral, educational force of art. Of particular importance, he gave work with the evangelical plots in which the absolute moral ideal saw. In the picture "The Last Supper" (1863), a complete tragedy of the clash of Christ, voluntarily circumvents herself to suffering and death and his student - Judah, who betrays his teacher. The same topic continued the pictures "What is the truth?" (1890) and "Calvary" (1892, not completed), written under the strong influence of L.N. Tolstoy, with whom he was in those years Friends.
N.N. Ge gave tribute and historical genre. One of the best historical paintings of this period was his work "Peter I interrogating Tsarevich Alexey in Peterhof", revealing the tragedy of civil debt and personal feeling. Among the best portrait works of the artist should be called Portraits A.I. Herzen, L.N. Tolstoy, self portrait.
One of the characteristic phenomena of the Russian genre painting of this period was the work of Vladimir Egorovich Makovsky, drawing the lives of various sections of Russian society ("Krach Bank", etc.). The best picture of the artist - "on the boulevard" (1886 - 87) talks about the difficult life of the peasants, cut off from the usual life and in someone else's city.
A staunch mobile phone who transmitted to painting the ideas of the revolutionary struggle was Nikolay Alexandrovich Yaroshenko ("Kochghar" (1878), "concluded" (1878), etc.). In the early 1880s Yaroshenko created two canvases ("student" and "cruising"), in which they reflected typical images of the allocated students of young people who replenished the ranks of public revolutionaries. The portrait of Yaroshenko is considered to be the portrait of P.A. Streptova (1884).
An innovator in the field of battle painting was Vasily Vasilyevich Vereshchagin. His paintings are not similar to the frontal battle canvas of the court painters. The content of his paintings was the brutal truth of war, the fate of its ordinary participants, heroism and the suffering of Russian soldiers. The pictures of Turkestan ("apotheosis of war", "triumph", "deadly wounded") and the Balkan ("before attacking") and the Balkan ("before attacking. Under the spillway.", "After the attack. Dressing point under the plenthum.", "All calmly" Shipka-Shaynovo. Babels under the thumbnail ") series. Vereshchagin's value is not limited to innovation in the field of battle painting. The first in Russian art, he marked the beginning of the image of the peoples of the East.
The vertex of the development of realistic art of the 70s - 80s. It became creativity I.E. Repin and V.I. Surikova.
The main achievements of the Russian painting of the period under consideration focused in his work Ilya Efimovich Repin. The first product of the Repin, opening a new page in the history of Russian realistic art, was the picture "Burlaci on the Volga". Refusing the initial (typical for the Mobile) intention of direct opposition of an elegant crowd of celebrated by the rich broken Vatage Burlakov, Repin focused on the disclosure of the image of each of the burles.
80s. There were sometimes the flourishing of the creativity of Repin, and his picture "The Cross Turn in the Kursk Province" again (as well as "burly" in the 70s.) became innovative. In front of the audience, all Russia, all its estimates and classes passes. Each of the numerous figures is a generalized image and at the same time - a specific human character, given in all its vitality. In the "cross procession", the people are shown and as a single movement covered by a single movement, which is impaired on the viewer, and as a multi-voiced chorus, where every character, retaining its unique individuality, is woven into a complex unique integer. The topic of revolutionary struggle also occupied a significant place in the work of Repin. She dedicated to the "Arrest Propagandist" paintings, "Refusal of confession", "did not wait."
Turning to the story, the Repin stops on the plots of the sourceratic, revealing the struggle of human passions and public forces, somehow echoing with modernity. So, the plot of the paintings "Ivan the Terrible and Son of His Ivan" inspired by the events of 1881. The contemporaries perceived this picture as a protest against despotism autocracy. Therefore, it was forbidden to show by K.P. Victorious. "Caporozhtsy", on the contrary, challenge the spirit of freedom, the folk Cossack Wolitsa. There is no repetitive image in the picture, a wide variety of characters are shown in a few bright features.
A huge contribution to the development of not only Russian, but also by world historical painting made Vasily Ivanovich Surikov. He belonged to the ancient Cossack family, who returned to Siberia from Don back in the XVI century. Ancient Russian customs and strengthening of Surikov's life could observe since childhood and these children's impressions were largely influenced by his further creativity. It was attracted by turning era, plots that gave the opportunity to reveal in extreme situations the depths of the human person. In 1881, they created a picture of "Morning Streletzka execution". Surimov depicts not the execution itself, and the last tense moments preceding it. A courageous waiting for death, the behavior of people in the last moments of earthly life - the main content of this picture is constituted. In 1883, Surikov wrote a picture of Menshikov in Berezov. Cold and dark flavor, a composition limiting space, reveal the dramatic collapse of the fate of the temporary, "half-enlightened lord", abandoned with his family in a Siberian link.
The largest work of Surikov became "Boayan Morozova" (1887). In the process of working on this picture, he specially traveled to Italy, so that the example of the work of the Renaissance masters will comprehend the laws of the composition in monumental painting. The moment is shown when Morozov's indomitable opponent is being brought to the Moscow streets. She says goodbye to the people and lists him to fight. Heroism and the tragedy of a single protest, the relationship of the heroine of the people is the topic of this picture. From the late works of Surikova, you can call the "Take of the Snow Town", "Conquest Siberia Ermacom", "Transition Suvorov through the Alps."
The historical topic, but not in dramatic, and in the heroic-poetic aspect sounds in the work of Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov. According to his own words, he was a historian "Several for Fantastic Lad." It was especially attracted by epic and fabulous stories. The plot of his first big paintings "After traveling by Igor Svyatoslavich with Polovtsy" (1880) inspired by the word about the regiment of Igor. He wanted to convey the poetry of the Russian epic, the beauty and greatness of the Military Right. Hence his desire for monumentality. With particular force, this was manifested in the picture "Bogatyri" (1898), over which he worked with breaks about 20 years (!). As in the eponymies, the appearance and character of each of the heroes is peculiar and at the same time, these are generalized artistic images of folk heroes - strong, bold, fair, etc. If the "hero" personifies the heroic beginning in the People's Epos, then "Alenushka" (1881) is a thin lyrics.
One of the best Russian landscape players Konch 60s - early 70s. was Alexey Kondratievich Savrasov. The most famous pictures - "Graci flew" (1871) and "Caps" (1873). Shown at the first exhibition of the mobile partnership, the picture "Graci flew" marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of the Russian landscape. Savrasov managed to see and convey the lyrism of the most ordinary and unassuming landscape. In subsequent years of Savrasov did not create anything equal to these two pictures. But as a teacher (he taught in the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture), he had a significant impact on the further development of Russian landscape painting.
The traditions of lyrical landscape were continued by Vasily Dmitrievich Polenov. It was the landscape that was the main destination in the artist's work. In the Moscow courtyard (1878), the "overgrown pond" (1879) was transferred to the special poetry of the quiet corners of Russian Nature. Like Savrasov the Polenov was a big teacher.
The best works of Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin characterize the epic direction in Russian landscape painting. Full maturity his work reached the end of the 1870s. The most characteristic of his works can be considered "rye" "pines lit by the Sun" and, finally, the most famous - "Morning in the Pine Forest".
Isaac Ilyich Levitan belonged to a younger generation of mobile phone. The flourishing of his creativity is the end of the 80s and 90s. In his work, he, as it were, synthesized two directions of Russian landscape painting - lyrical and epic. The power and at the same time implacing the Russian nature are perfectly transferred in its pictures. He almost went annually on the Volga and this mighty and lyrical river Salan a kind of symbol of his creativity ("After the rain. Ples." (1889), "Fresh wind. Volga." (1895). In the last work noticeable Influence of french impressionists.
Sculpture
In the 1860s - 90s. Russian sculpture, especially monumental, could not be compared in terms of artistic achievements with the period of the "Golden Age".
The decline of the monumental sculpture, as well as the sculpture of the monumental-dectorotive, was closely related to the overall artistic decline, which worried from the 40s - 50s. Architecture, with the collapse of the synthesis of architecture and visual arts. The main achievements at this time took place in the machine sculpture.
The most significant Russian sculptor II Paul. XIX century Mark Matveyevich Antocolsky. In the years of study at the Academy of Arts, he was friendly with young I.E. Repin. It is characteristic of his own creative attention to historical topics. In 1870, he graduated from the statue of "Ivan Grozny" in which she sought to convey the entire contradiction of the spiritual world of the king, its strength and at the same time weakness, fatigue, cruelty and remorse. Soon (1872) he creates a new significant work - the statue of "Peter Great" (dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of the emperor). Sculptor depicted Peter at the time of the Poltava battle - in the Preobrazhensky uniform, with a triangle in his hand. Waving hair and wind-related clothing folds enhance the impression of emotion and heroes of the image. Subsequently, M.M. Antickolsky based on this sculptural image created by Peter's monuments for several cities of Russia (Arkhangelsk, Taganrog, etc.).
In the field of monumental sculpture, it is necessary to note the activities of two masters - Mikhail Osipovich Mikeshin and Alexander Mikhailovich Padekushina. The first became famous as the author of such famous works as a monument "Millennium of Russia" in Novgorod (1862), monuments of Catherine II in St. Petersburg (1873) and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kiev (1888). The second is known primarily as the author of the monument A.S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880) is one of the best monuments in the history of Russian sculpture.
Architecture
By the middle of the XIX century. Clearly marked the decline of architecture. Eclecticism is distributed - the use of elements of a wide variety of styles. Under the onslaught of capitalist feasibility goes into the past ensemble of construction. The high price for land plots in the prestigious areas of the city was led to the fact that in pursuit of profit, new "owners of life" did not pay attention to such "little things", as architectural unity of the style, historical environment, etc. During this period, many invaluable architectural ensembles, which preceded the previous decades were irrevocably corrupted.
And yet it is impossible not to notice some of the achievements of the architecture of Ser. - II floor. XIX century First of all, they are due to the progress of technology. There is a need for the buildings of a new type - railway stations, huge commercial premises (passages), multi-apartment income homes, etc. There are new building materials (for example, metal structures, reinforced concrete, etc.) that provide larger space for creativity to architects.
In the 1850s - 60s. The prevailing style in the architecture was "retrospective stylization", i.e. Reproduction of external forms of certain architectural styles of the past. The virtuoso of this direction was Andrei Ivanovich Shtakhenshneider, whose work is mainly accounted for by the end of the Nikolaev reign. The Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg became the earliest work. Here the author used elements of classicism. Beloselsky-Belozerski Palace in the same St. Petersburg was remarkably stylized by Shockenchneider in the Spirit of Rastrelie Baroque. Konstantin Mikhailovich Bykovsky (Zoological Museum in Moscow (1896) belongs to late representatives of the stylitative direction.
Since the 1870s, thanks to the rise of the national self-consciousness under the influence of events in the Balkans and, partly, in connection with the emergence of people's ideas, the search for some national, original Russian style begins. Retrospectivism in the "Western" forms is no longer suitable, the official Russian-Byzantine style is also. There is a "Russian" (or, according to Soviet terminology, pseudorussky) style. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe features of this style gives such buildings as the historical museum (1875 - 1881, Arch. V.O. Sherwood), upper trading rows (now - GUM) (1889 - 1893, Arch. A.N. Pomerances ) and the Moscow City Council (1890 - 1892, Arch. D.N. Chichagov). From St. Petersburg monuments of this area, it is necessary to note the Temple of the Resurrection of Christ ("Savior on Blood") (1883 - 1907, Arch. I.V. Makarov, A.A. Parland).
"Russian" style existed for long. At the end of him, at the end of the century, he came completely unusual, innovative style - modern.
Music
The case of creating national Russian music, started by M.I. Glinka, in the middle of the XIX century. It was still far from completed. Italian artists were asked on the opera scenes, the Italian artists were asked, Russian music was almost never sounded in concert halls.
In 1862, a small group of composers was rallied in St. Petersburg, a given goal to continue the case of M.I. Glinka. Subsequently, this group was called a "mighty bunch." Her organizer and theorist was Miliya Alekseevich Balakirev. In 1866, after painstaking work, he published a "Collection of Russian People's Songs". The composition of the "mighty bunch" included M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P Borodin.
In 1873, Pskovtyanka was supplied - the first opera Nikolai Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908). She takes a special place in his work. The power and depth of musical drama "Pskovtyanka" exceeds almost all other operas. By loyalty and the sequence in holding a national flavor, it became one-row with Glinka operations. The folk song melodies permeated all the music "Pskovtyanka", with a special force they sound in the second act, where the Pskov veche is depicted. Many other Opera Roman Corsakov are written on fabulous plots. Watercolor transparency is distinguished by the music of "Snow Maiden", a sad fairy tale about spring and first love.
The musical drama occupied the main place in the work of Modest Petrovich Musorgsky (1839-1881). He felt the taste for music from six years. But the profession of the musician was considered unworthy nobleman. Mussorgsky gave to the school of Guards submaroes. However, he did not forget about music, she took private lessons, and after acquaintance with Dargomyzhsky and Balakirev, he retired and dedicated himself to his beloved business. In 1869, he proposed the Directorate of Imperial Theaters by Opera "Boris Godunov" (on the drama Pushkin). In 1874, she was put in the St. Petersburg Mariinsky Theater.
Staging was not successful. The public turned out to be not ready for the perception of Russian musical drama. Critics trembled with ridiculous creation of Mussorgsky, exaggerating the shortcomings and silent advantages. The composer had a long depression associated with the non-recognition of his creativity, loneliness, poverty. He died in a soldier's hospital.
Mussorgsky left an unfinished musical drama "Hovanshchina" (from the era of shooting risks), Roman-korsakov led to the manuscript of Mussorgsky and, if possible, finalized his work. "Boris Godunov" and "Hovanshchyna" still do not go from the opera stage in our country and abroad, considering the classics.
"Prince Igor", the only opera Alexei Porfiryevich Borodin (1833-1887), was set after his death. Opera has the truthfulness and beauty of the national flavor, which is opposed to East (Polovtsy) flavor.
Borodin was a professor of chemistry, music was engaged in a few leisure hours. That is the earliest that the ease with which he solved complex musical tasks and in the opera and in the symphony (the second symphony of criticism was called "Bogatlish"). Borodin sought to latitude and epitility of musical narration.
The activities of the "mighty bunch" - as a bright phenomenon in Russian culture that the contemporaries spoke about the "musical revolution" of the 60s - 70s. With brothering with the task, the "mighty hand" finally approved Russian national starts in music.
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) was not included in the "mighty bunch." He has grown towards pan-European musical forms, although in his music it believes to the Russian school. His Opera "Yevgeny Onegin", written for the conservative performance in Moscow, was soon put in the theater, and then conquered Mirswe's recognition. His symphonic poems ("Romeo and Juliet", etc.), the last, sixth, written shortly before death and permeated by the forebreak of the impending tragedy, are distinguished. Tchaikovsky ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "Nutcracker") entered the world ballet classic. Tchaikovsky wrote more than a hundred romances, many other works.
Thus, the second half of the XIX in is the time of final approval and consolidation of national forms and traditions in Russian art. Maxi "E successfully it was in music, less successfully - in architecture. In place, it is not necessary to talk about the closure of Russian art in the narrow national framework, about the isolation of it from the rest of the world. Russian culture (primarily literature and music) received worldwide recognition. Russian culture occupied an honorable place in the family of European cultures.
The science
Public lift in the period of cancellation of serfdom created favorable conditions for the development of Russian science. In the eyes of the younger generation, the importance of scientific activities grew (an important role was also played by the spread of nihilism, which was a prerequisite for higher education). Graduates of Russian universities began to go to the internship to European scientific centers more often, the contacts of Russian scientists with their foreign colleagues revived.
Big successes were achieved in the field of mathematics and physics. Pafnutius Lvovich Chebyshev (1821-1894) made major discoveries in mathematical analysis, theory of numbers, probability theory. He laid the beginning of the St. Petersburg Mathematical School. Many talented scientists came out of it, including Alexander Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857 - 1918), his discoveries laid the beginning of a number of critical trends in mathematics.
In the development of physics, Alexander Grigorievich Poles (1839-1896) played an outstanding role. It owns a number of studies in the field of photoelectric phenomena, subsequently used in the creation of modern electronic equipment.
The development of physical science determined the success in electrical engineering. PN Apple created an arc lamp ("Candle of Apple") and the first transformation of alternating current. A.N. Lododogin invented a more advanced incandescent lamp.
The opening of the world value was the invention of the radio telegraph. Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859-1905) B.1895 at a meeting of the Russian Chemical Society, he made a report on the use of electromagnetic waves to transmit signals. The device demonstrated by them, the "grinding point" was essentially the first receiving radio station in the world. In subsequent years, he created more advanced devices, but his attempts to introduce radio communication on the fleet were not too successful.
Marine Officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaysky (1825 - 1890) devoted his life to creating an aircraft heavier than air. He studied the flight of birds, made a model, and in 1881 he began to build an aircraft with two steam machines with a capacity of 20 and 10 liters. from. There are no official documents on the testing of this aircraft. Apparently, the attempt ended unsuccessfully. However, the inventor came close to the solution of the problem, and his name is rightly written in the history of aviation.
60 - 70s XIX century. They call the "golden age" of Russian chemistry. Alexander Mikhailovich Butlers (1828 - 1886) developed the theory of chemical structure, the main provisions of which did not lose values \u200b\u200bbefore our time.
In the second half of the XIX century. Made his discoveries Great Chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1634-1907). The greatest merit of Mendeleev was the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements. At his foundation, Mendeleev predicted the existence of many then still unknown elements. The book of Mendeleev "Basics of Chemistry" was translated almost all European languages.
DI. Mendeleev thought a lot about the fate of Russia. Its exit to the path of economic and cultural lifting, it is associated with the wide and rational use of natural wealth, with the development of the creative forces of the people, the spread of education and science.
Using the achievements of chemistry and biology, Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev (1846 - 1903) laid the beginning of the modern soil science. He revealed a complex and long-term process of soil origin. The world glory of Dokuchaev brought a monograph "Russian Chernozem". The ideas of Dokuchaev influenced the development of refinery, land reclamation, hydrogeological and other sciences.
The Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1915) became an outstanding Russian natural school, the founder of the Russian physiological school. An outstanding importance had his lecture course "On Animal Electricity" (i.e. on bioelectricity). In the future, he was engaged in the problems of human psyche. His work of "brain reflexes" and "psychological etudes" were widely fame.
The activities of another world-famous Russian biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916), focused in the field of microbiology, bacteriology, medicine. In 1887, Mechnikov, at the invitation of Louis Pasteur, moved to Paris and headed one of the laboratories of the Pasteur Institute. Until the end of his days, he did not break the ties with Russia, rewritten with Sechenov, Mendeleev, other Russian scientists, repeatedly came to his homeland, helped Russian traitors in the famous Institute.
Professional historians have long been not satisfied by many different labor N.M. Karamzin "The Story of the Russian State". Many new sources were revealed on the history of Russia, complicated ideas about the historical process. In 1851, the first volume of the history of Russia from ancient times was published, written by a young professor of Moscow University Sergey Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820-1879). Since then, for many years, the new Tom of His History has come out annually. The last, 29, saw the light in 1880. The events were brought to 1775. Comparing the historical development of Russia and other countries in Europe, Solovyov found a lot in common in their destinies. He also noted the originality of the historical path of Russia. In his opinion, it consisted in its intermediate position between Europe and Asia, in the forced centuries-old combat with steppe nomads. At first, Asia fell, Solovyov believed, and about the XVI century. In the offensive, Russia was transferred - advanced European outpost in the East.
Student S.M. Solovyova was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911). He replaced his teacher at the Department of Russian History at Moscow University. In agreement with the Spirit of New Time, Klyuchevsky showed great interest in socio-economic issues. He tried to trace in detail the process of folding the fortress relations in Russia, to identify their essence from the economic and legal points of view. Klyuchevsky possessed an outstanding gift of live, figurative presentation. His "RUSSIAN RUSSIAN HISTORY", compiled on the basis of university lectures, still has a wide reader audience.
In the second half of the XIX century. Russian scientists have achieved significant success in different branches of knowledge. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the world's world research.
Of particular importance were the achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research. Russian travelers visited such places where the European foot has not argued. In the second half of the XIX century. Their efforts were focused on the study of the deep districts of Asia.
The start of expeditions to the depths of Asia was put by Peter Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistical, Botany, he made a number of travels to the mountains of Central Asia, on Tian-Shan. Heading the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing non-Nonal Expedition plans. According to his initiative, a multi-volume edition "Russia was undertaken. Complete geographical description of our fatherland. "
The activities and other travelers were connected with the Russian geographic society - P.A. Kropotkin and N.M. Przhevalsky.
Pa Kropotkin in 1864-1866 Making a trip over Northern Manchuria, Sayanam and Vitimsky plateau. In the future, he became a famous anarchist revolutionary.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) performed his first expedition on the Ussuri Territory, then his paths pulled through the most difficult areas of Central Asia. He crossed Mongolia several times, North China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died on his way, at the beginning of his last expedition.
The overseas travel of Russian scientists in the secret half of the XIX century. acquired more focused. If, mostly, they were mainly limited to a description and application on the coastline map, then life, culture, customs of local peoples were studied. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. Put the joint venture. Krashennikov, was continued by Nikolai Nikolayevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846 - 1888), he made the first travels to the Canary Islands and in North Africa. At the beginning of the 70s, he visited a number of Pacific Islands, studied the life of local peoples. 16 months lived among Papuans on the northeast coast of New Guinea (this place since then is called the "shore of Maclay"). Russian scientist won the confidence and love of local residents. He then traveled through the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, again returned to the "Shore of Maclay". Described by scientists, the descriptions of life and morals, the economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania in a large part were published only after his death.
ESSAY
in the course "History of Russia"
on the topic: "Russia in the second half of the XIX century"
1. Internal policy of Russia in the second halfXIX. in.
In 1857, by decree Alexander II, the secret committee on the peasant issue began to work, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory endowment of the peasants of the Earth. Then such committees were created by provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and punishes, both landowners and peasants were taken into account, reform was developed for the cancellation of serfdom for all parts of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas, the maximum and minimum magnitude of the transmitted peasant stationed was determined.
The emperor on February 19, 1861 signed a number of laws. There was a manifesto and the provision on the declaration of freedom to peasants, documents on the entry into force of the situation, about the management of rural communities and others. Cancellation of serfdom was not a one-time event. At first, the landlords of the peasants were released, then specific and attributed to the factories. The peasants received personal freedom, but the Earth remained landlord property, and until they were put out ones, the peasants at the "temporary-obliged" position carried in favor of subsidiaries, which, in fact, did not differ from the previous, serfs. Pasteners transmitted to the peasants were on average by 1/5 less than those they were treated before. The redemption agreements were concluded for these lands, after that the "temporarily obligated" state was terminated, the treasury paid for Earth with landowners, peasants - with a treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption).
The use of land, relationship with the authorities was built through the community. It was kept as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (peace).
As a result of the reforms, the serfdom was destroyed that "obvious and for all a valid evil", which in Europe was directly called "Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, as the peasants in the section of the Earth were forced to send the fifth part of their passengers.
Under Alexander II, in addition to land reform and the abolition of serfdom, a number of reforms were also carried out.
The principle conducted in 1864 the god reform was in election and unconditionality. In the provinces and counties of Central Russia and the part of Ukraine, the Zemstvo was established as local governments. Elections to Zemsky meetings were conducted on the basis of the property, age, educational and number of other centes. The city reform conducted in 1870 was close to Zemskoy. In major cities, urban duma was established on the basis of all-known elections.
New judicial chances were approved on November 20, 1864, the judiciary was separated from the executive and legislative. An immaculate and vowing court was introduced, the principle of displaceability of judges was approved. Two types of court were introduced - general (coronary) and global. The most important principle of reform was the recognition of equality of all the subjects of the Empire before the law.
After appointment in 1861 D.A. Milyutin Military Minister begins reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinates directly to the Military Minister. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the king approved the charter about the universal military service. A flexible call system was introduced. Recruit sets were canceled, the call to the service was subject to all the men's population that has reached 21 years.
In 1860, the State Bank was established, the abolition of the deposited 2 system was canceled, which was replaced by excise taxes (1863). Since 1862, the Minister of Finance became the only responsible manager of income and budget expenditures; The budget has become vowels. An attempt was made to conduct monetary reform (free exchange of credit tickets for gold and silver at the established rate).
The Regulation on the initial folk schools "dated June 14, 1864 was eliminated by the state-church monopoly for enlightenment. Now open and maintain primary schools were allowed both to public institutions and individuals in control of the county and provincial schools and inspectors. The charter of secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions, but introduced a training fee. The gymnasiums were divided into classic and real. University Charter (1863) provided universities wide autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. In May 1862, the reform of censorship began, "temporary rules" were introduced, which in 1865 replaced the new censorship charter.
The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administrative reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always quickly suspected the ideas of the king reformer. The variety and speed of transformations gave rise to a sense of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost the landmarks, there were organizations that confess the extremist, sectarian principles. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed. New emperor Alexander III. Proclaimed the course called in the historical and materialistic literature "counterforms", and in the liberal-historical - "correction of reforms". He expressed himself in the following.
In 1889, the positions of the Zemstvo Chiefs with Wide Rights were introduced to enhance the surveillance of peasants. They were appointed from local nobility-landowners. The authorities and small merchants, other low-income layers of the city were lost. The change was subject to judicial reform. In the new position about the deputy 1890, the estate-noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884 Many publications were closed, university autonomy was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the Church Office - Synod.
In these events, the idea of \u200b\u200b"official nationality" of the time of Nicholas I - the slogan "Orthodoxy was manifested. Autocracy. Spirit of humility "was consonant with slogans of the left era. New official ideologists K.P. Victorious (Ober-Prosecutor of Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moscow Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (the publisher of the newspaper "Citizen") lowered the word "people" as "dangerous" in the old formula, as "dangerous" in the old formula; They preached the humility of His Spirit in front of the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy poured into an attempt to strengthen the state by supporting the nobility estate to traditionally faithful to the throne. Administrative measures were supported by economic support for landlords.
2. Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the XIX century.
After the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War there was a new ratio of forces, and the political championship in Europe passed to France. Russia as a great power has lost its impact on international affairs and was insulation. The interests of economic development, as well as considerations of strategic security, required to eliminate the restrictions on military shipping on the Black Sea, provided for by the Parisian peace treaty of 1856. The diplomatic efforts of Russia were aimed at the separation of participants in the Paris World - France, England, Austria.
In the late 50s - early 60s. There was a rapprochement with France, which intended to capture the territory on the Apennine Peninsula, using the Italian liberation movement against Austria. But relations with France have aggravated due to the abuse of Russia of the Polish uprising. In the 60s. strengthening the relations between Russia and the United States; Pursuing his interests, autocracy supported the Republican Government A. Lincoln in the Civil War. At the same time, an agreement was reached with Prussia on the support of Russia's claims on the abolition of the Paris Treaty, instead of the royal government promised not to interfere with the creation of the North-German Union led by Prussia.
In 1870, France suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco Prussian War. In October 1870, Russia declared his refusal to carry out the humiliating articles of the Paris Treaty. In 1871, the Russian Declaration was adopted and legalized on the London Conference. The strategic task of foreign policy was not solved by war, but diplomatic means. As a result, Russia has become an opportunity to more actively influence international affairs and above all - in the Balkans.
In the "Middle Abroad" the conquest and accession of new territories continued. Now, in the XIX century, the desire for the expansion of the area was determined primarily with the motives of a socio-political nature. Russia actively participated in great politics, sought to neutralize the influence of England in Central Asia, Turkey - in the Caucasus. In the 60s. In the US, a civil war occurred, the import of American cotton was difficult. His natural substitute was "sideways", in Central Asia. And finally, the seizure of territories pushed the imperial traditions formed.
In 1858 and 1860. China was forced to give the land on the left bank of the Amur and the Ussuri region. In 1859, after half a century war, the mountains of the Caucasus, finally, were "surrenized", their military and spiritual leaders of Imam Shamil captured in a high-altitude Aule Gunib. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was completed.
The Russian emperor sought to ensure that the rulers of the states of Central Asia recognize his supreme power, and achieved this: in 1868, Khiva Khanate, and in 1873 Bukhara Emirate recognized the vassal dependence on Russia. Muslims of Kokand Khanate declared Russia "Holy War", "Gazavat", but suffered; In 1876, Kokand was joined in Russia. In the early 80s. Russian troops broke the nomadic Turkmen tribes and came close to the borders of Afghanistan.
In 1875-1876. The uprisings against Turkey covered the entire Balkan Peninsula, the Slavs were waiting for the assistance of Russia.
On April 24, 1877, the king signed a manifesto on the announcement of Turkey War. A plan of a speed campaign was developed. On July 7, the troops fucked the Danube, went to the Balkans, captured Shipkin Pass, but were detained under the whites. Plevna fell only on November 28, 1877; In winter, the Russian army passed through the Balkans, on January 4, 1878. Sofia was taken, January 8 - Adrianopol. The port requested the world, which was concluded on February 19, 1878 in San Stefano. Under the contract in San Stefano, Turkey lost almost all of its European possessions; A new independent state appeared on the map of Europe - Bulgaria.
Western powers refused to recognize the San Stefan Treaty. In June 1878, the Berlin Congress opened, which made decisions, significantly less profitable for Russia and the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In Russia, it was encountered as an insult to national dignity, the storm of indignation was rising, including in relation to the government. Public opinion was still in captivity of the formula "Everything immediately". The war ended with the victory turned into a diplomatic defeat, economic disorder, the exacerbation of the domestic political situation.
In the first years after the war, "overbalanced" of the interests of the great powers took place. Germany leanned towards the Union with Austria-Hungary, which was concluded in 1879, and in 1882 supplemented with the "Thieves Union" with Italy. Under these conditions, there was a natural convergence of Russia and France, which ended in 1892 by the conclusion of a secret union supplemented by the Military Convention. For the first time in world history, the economic and military-political opposition to the sustainable groups of the great powers began.
In the Far East, the southern part of Sakhalin is acquired in the Far East in exchange for Kuril Islands. In 1867, the United States for 7 million dollars was sold to Alaska. According to the testimony of the historian
S.G. Pushkareva, many Americans believed that she was not worth it.
The Russian Empire, "Unified and indivisible", spread out "from Finnish Cold Rocks to Flame Taurida," from Vistula to the Pacific and took the sixth part of the Earth.
3. Economic and social development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
For the economy of the Foreign Russia, the rapid development of commodity-money relations is characteristic. There was an increase in sowing and agricultural production, but the productivity of agriculture remained low. Crops and consumption of products (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. Compared to the 50s. The average annual collection of grains grew by 38%, and its exports increased by 4.6 times.
The development of commodity relations has led to the property differentiation in the village, the middle naval farms ruined, the number of poor people grew. On the other hand, strong foolish farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But quite unexpectedly for them in the country there was a traditionally hostile attitude towards trade, to all new forms of activity: to a fist, merchant, buyer - to a lucky entrepreneur.
Reforms laid the foundation of the new loan system. For 1866-1875 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual loan societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866, the largest European banks began to actively participate in their work.
In Russia, the large industry was created and developed as a state. The main care of the government after the failures of the Crimean War were enterprises that produced military equipment. Russia's military budget overthrew the English, French, German, but in the Russian budget he had a more significant weight. Special attention was paid to the development of heavy industries and transport. It is in these areas that the government guided funds both Russian and foreign.
As a result of state regulation, foreign loans and investments were mainly on railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market at the huge expanses of Russia; They were important for the operational transfer of military units.
The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state on the basis of issuing special orders, so large bourgeoisie was closely related to the state. The number of industrial workers increased rapidly, however, many workers maintained economic and psychological ties with the village, they carried the charge of the discontinuities of the poor who lost the land and forced to seek food in the city.
After the fall of serfdom, Russia quickly turned from an agrarian country into the agrarian-industrial. A large machine industry has developed, new types of industry have emerged, the areas of capitalist industrial and agricultural production have emerged, an extensive network of railways was created, a single capitalist market was formed, important social shifts in the country occurred. The decomposition of the peasantry was an important factor in the formation of the capitalist market and the development of capitalism as a whole. The poor peasantry created the labor market for both business agriculture and large capitalist industries. The advantage of the Top presented an increasing demand for agricultural machines, fertilizers, etc. accumulated capital of the village Tip invested in an industrial entrepreneurship.
Thus, with all its progressiveness, agricultural transformations exacerbated social contradictions even more, which by the beginning of the 20th century poured into a revolutionary situation.
4. Ideas struggle and social movement in Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
1861 was characterized by a sharp exacerbation of the situation in the village. The peasants who announced the situation on February 19, 1861 did not believe that this is a true royal law, demanding land. In some cases (as, for example, in s. Abyss), it came to ten thousand meters, ending with the use of troops and hundreds of those killed. A.I. Herzen, who originally welcomed the title "Liberator" on February 19 for Alexander II, after these executions changed the opinion and stated that the "old serfdom replaced new". In public life, in general, there was a significant limitation of consciousness of wide circles of the population.
Three currents were formed in the public consciousness: radical, liberal and conservative. The conservatives advocated the inviolability of autocracy. Radicals - for its overthrow. Liberals tried to achieve greater civil liberty in society, but at the same time they did not strive for the change of political system.
Liberal movement of the late 50s - early 60s. It was the widest and had many different shades. But, one way or another, the liberals advocated the establishment of a peaceful way of constitutional forms of government, for political and civil liberties and education of the people. Being supporters of legal forms, liberals acted through the seal and Zemstvo.
The democratization of society affected the participants of the social movement. If in the first half of the XIX century among the opposition figures (from the Decembrists to Herzen), representatives of the nobles prevailed, then in the 60s, the people of various "ranks" were active in public life (that is, public groups). This allowed Soviet researchers, following Lenin, talking about the transition from 1861 from the noble movement to the allocating stage of the liberation movement.
A number of underground circles arise on the wave of a democratic lift in the country, at the end of 1861 united in the organization "Earth and Will". The management of the Organization was Alexander and Nikolai Serno-Solovyovichi, Nikolai Obruchev, Alexander Sleptsov, took an active part in her affairs, took Chernyshevsky, helped from London Ogarev and Herzen. The organization united up to 400 participants in the circles of Central Russia and Poland.
The name of the organization reflected the main, according to its participants, the requirements of the people and was associated with the program: the return of segments, forced redemption by the landowner state, the creation of electoral local governments and the Central People's Representative Office. The program, as we see, was quite moderate according to modern standards, but it was not necessary to expect for its implementation under the royal government. Therefore, the participants of the "land and will" prepared for the armed seizure of power. Its perspective they were associated with the spring of 1863, when, from February 19, 1863, the conclusion of redemption acts should begin throughout the country. However, in 1862 Nikolai Serno-Solovievich and Chernyshevsky were arrested; At the same time, the latter was exiled to Siberia for unproved charges, so he came down from political arena. In addition, within the organization itself there were disagreements on ideological issues. As a result, by the spring of 1864, the "Earth and Will" was eliminated.
In the early 1860s, the working population of Russia has increased significantly over the next two decades. Due to the inhuman conditions of life and labor, the labor movement, which ranked on the outcome of the 70s is quite commonplace. The number of strikes was measured with dozens per year, sometimes large strikes happened, for the acceleration of which troops were used.
By 1875, the creation of Russian workers in Odessa of the South-Russian Union in Odessa. Opened police after a few months, the Union is notable for the fact that it was the first working organization in Russia. After three years, in 1878, the Northern Union of Russian Workers appeared in St. Petersburg. His goal was quite obvious - "Niscovertication of the existing political and economic system as extremely unfair." Direct Requirements - the introduction of democratic freedoms, the development of labor legislation, etc. It is especially worth noting the "Establishment of the Community People's Firm Community, the establishment of the Russian Conventional Law." Thus, the unfolding labor movement was based on the populistic, peasant ideology.
However, the beginning of the 1880s pushed the crisis of the populist movement, who was launched to rely on the peasants in the struggle for changing the system. Marxism has already accustomed to people's replacement in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx were based on its economic views, proclaimed capitalism of the advanced stage of the Company's development, which, however, is inherent in serious internal contradictions between capitalists and direct manufacturers. Accordingly, Marx predicted that capitalism should be changed by a different social system based on a more equitable distribution, and this should occur precisely with a support for the proletariat. Naturally, therefore, that it is with the proletarian (working) movement and the development of Marxism in Russia is connected.
Marxism's penetration into Russia has greatly contributed to population in the West in the exile of populists: Plekhanov, Zasulich, Axelrod and others. Having recognized the erroneousness of his former looks, they accepted the ideas of Marx. To change this clearly characterize the words of Plekhanov: "The historical role of Russian proletariat is as revolutionary as the role of the man is conservative." The group "Labor" began to translate and publish Marx on the basis of these revolutionaries, which contributed to the spread of Marxist circles in Russia.
Thus, the revolutionary movement in Russia entered into the late XIX century to a new stage.
Literature
1. Long A.M. Russian history. Tutorial. M.: Infra-M, 2007.
2. The history of Russia. Study theory. The first book, the second / under. ed. B. V. Persmanna. Ekaterinburg: SV-96, 2006. - 304 p.
3. Kozin KM The history of homeland. Tutorial for universities. M.: Airo-XXI; St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 2007. - 200 p.
4. Mironov B.A. Social history of Russia. T.1. St. Petersburg, 2006.
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In the second half of the XIX century. Russia comes in the period modernization. There is an industrial coup. The social structure of society changes. The obstacle to the development of modernization processes is the serfthrower system who worried in the middle of the XIX century. the crisis.
Domestic policy.
The main tasks in the internal policy were:
- Saving autocracy;
- preservation of the privileges of the nobility;
- ensuring social stability and strengthening the domestic situation through the creation of conditions for economic development;
- Restoration of the international prestige of the country, including due to transformations aimed at overcoming the backwardness of Russia.
Internal policy of the second half of the XIX century. You can divide into two stages: reforms (contemporaries called them great reforms) Alexander II and Alexander III counter does.
Great reforms Alexander II.
The main issue, predetermined the course and content of subsequent transformations in Russia, was the abolition of serfdom (peasant reform).Causes Cancellation of serfdom:
- The serfdom has become a brake in the economic development of the country. The low productivity of the forced labor of serfs prevented the development of landlord. The increase in the mantles of the peasants in favor of landlords, striving to increase their income, and the powerful position of the serfs did not give to develop the peasant economy. The lack of a free labor market, the low purchasing power of the population and the lack of capital constrained industrial development;
- the growth of peasant performances;
- the relationship of society has changed to the fastening right: not only revolutionary mindful differences, but also representatives of the liberal part of the nobility were expressed for the abolition of serfdom, realizing its economic inefficiency;
- Attempts to overcome the negative consequences of the Crimean War, they came together to Russia from leading European states as a backward country primarily in connection with the preservation of serfdom in it.
At a meeting with the deputies of the Moscow Nobility in March 1856, Alexander II spoke out against the immediate cancellation of serfdom. But it is better to cancel it from above, than to wait until it starts to cancel itself from the bottom. In January 1857, the Secret Committee for the Peasant Question was established. In November-December, the emperor resciphes were allowed to create the provincial nobility committees to develop projects of peasant reform. Created in March 1859. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and local "provisions on peasants who came out of the fortress dependence", clarified the behavior of the peasant reform in different provinces.
Conditions for the release of fortress peasants:
- Land remains owned by landowners;
- The landowner was obliged to provide the peasant for the redemption of the field navel and the manor fortune (the site where the house was standing);
- the highest and minimal norms of the field was put on, the sizes of which depended on the fertility of the land and was specified in local provisions;
- the size of the redemption transaction was fixed in the authorized literacy;
- Peasants when making a redeeming transaction paid 20% of the value of land from their own funds. The state provided a peasant loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the Earth, which was redeemed within 49 years by 6% annually (redemption);
- the peasant puts on the community;
- In the peasant community, a circular order was introduced;
- Peasants who have not swallowed to redemption, were considered tempted And they continued to pay the lifts and work out the barbecue. "Position" of December 28, 1881 obliges all the peasants until January 1, 1883, go to the ransom.
Effects The peasant reform: - the high price of the redemption of the Earth (one and a half times higher than the market) and annual redemption payments (canceled only in 1906, when the peasants paid the amount, almost 2 times the length of the loan) affected the financial position of the peasantry;
- The process of dedication of peasants is developing: the landowners sought to reduce the peasant pans, approaching their dimensions to the minimum norm established for this province (the problem of segments), which led to a reduction in peasant incidents by 20%. The increase in the number of peasant people in Russia If it is impossible for most peasants to increase their incidents, led to a decrease in the average size of the shower land with 4 tents after reform up to 2 tents at the end of the XIX century;
- The reform spawned the problem sweepers;
- the conservation of the community was preserved by the archaic forms of land use with periodic remakes of the Earth, which was constrained by the development of capitalism in the village;
- The introduction of a circular order in the community leveled the incomes of peasant farms, on the one hand, saving them from ruin, on the other hand, not giving developing successful farms.
The peasant reform remained unhappy with everything. The landowners who lost the serfs and most of them failed to adapt to new terms of management. Democrats who understood the limitations of reform that did not make the former serfs of the peasants full subsequent Russian Empire. Peasants, who lost their part of their incidents and forced to buy land from landowners. The abolition of serfdom led to an increase in the number of peasant speeches and the intensification of the activities of revolutionary organizations in Russia.
Zemskaya reform. January 1, 1864 approved the "Regulations on the provincial and county facilities". Zemstvo was dealt with economic issues:
- the content of the Zemsky buildings and communication paths;
- implementation of measures to ensure public food;
- holding charitable events;
- development of local trade and industry;
- sanitary measures;
- development of health and education.
Elections to Zemsky meetings were produced in three Kuria - landowner (county nobles, landowners), urban (owners' citizens with capital at least 60 thousand rubles) and peasant (rural peasant societies). Elections were held every three years and were multistage. Zemstvo collections chose the executive body - Zemstvo Governance. The chairman of the county department was approved by the governor, and the provincial - Minister of Internal Affairs.
Zemstvo was not created in Siberia, in the Cossack regions and in national regions.
Judicial reform. On November 20, 1864, new judicial statutes were approved. The new judicial system was built on the following principles:
- equality of all before the court;
- publicity (openness) of court sessions;
- Competition during the trial: the presence of an accusation (prosecutor) and protection (lawyer is a sworn attorney);
- the selection of global judges;
- the independence of the court from the administration;
- Introduction of the Institute of Jury.
At the same time, class courts remained, government officials were given to court by decision of the authorities, the jury was removed from the consideration of political affairs and the Minister of Justice had an unlimited right to appoint judges.
Reforming stretched for 35 years. The first two judicial districts on the new charters were created in April 1866. The latter - in 1899
Military reform. The defeat in the Crimean War made the government closely make changes in the army. Military reform was carried out with the active participation of D. A. Milyutin, appointed in 1861 by the military minister.
The purpose of the reform was to overcome the lag in the military sphere from the armies of the leading Western European states. For this followed:
- Improve the military management system;
- improve the training of officer personnel;
- Create trained reserves;
- reoperack the army.
The main activities of reform:
- division of Russia for military districts;
- expansion of network of military schools (institution of military schools, academies, military gymnasiums);
- re-equipment of the army with rifled weapons;
- reducing the service life of recruits up to 15 years;
- Cancel recruitment and administration in 1874 by the Universal Military Meament;
- Assignment of officers only in the presence of special military education.
Attention! In historical literature there is a different dating of military reform. Or 1862-1874, that is, with the reorganization of the army management system before the introduction of the "Charter of Military Meetility". Or 1874, when the reform comes down to the adoption of the "Charter", which has abolished recruitment sets replaced with a universal military service.
School reform. In 1863, the introduction of a new university charter begins the reform of higher education. The democratization of public life of universities is occurring: the internal autonomy of universities has been restored, the "kits" of students are canceled (restriction of the number of students - no more than 300 people per university), open access to solid losses. Universities were created in Odessa, Warsaw, Helsingfors (Helsinki) and several new institutions.
In 1864 begins primary and high school reform: The "Regulations on the initial folk schools" and "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progimazi" were adopted. It was allowed to open primary schools to individuals and public organizations, which destroyed the state-church monopoly on primary education. Training in the gymnasium gave the right to enter higher education institutions: after the classic - to the university, after real - to the highest technical educational institutions. Women's education developed (in 1862 women's gymnasiums appeared).
Financial reform. In the 1860s There have been changes in the field of finance:
- established a state bank;
- Allowed the creation of joint-stock banks prohibited under Nicolae I;
- established a single procedure for compiling the estimates of income and expenses;
- The unity of the cash register was introduced: financial operations of public institutions were accomplished through the cashier of the Ministry of Finance;
- the state budget was published in open press;
- Canceled wine sputters, an excise and patent fee introduced.
City reform. In 1870, the "city situation" was adopted, which introduced urban self-government in the type of Zemsky. City Duma and Governors were engaged in issues of improvement, he managed to school, medical and charitable affairs. Only taxpayer citizens participated in the urban duma elections. The city Duma has elected the city council and the urban head, which headed the Duma, and the Governance.
Liberal reforms of 1860-1870s. They gave the impetus to the capitalist modernization of Russia. However, Alexander II policy was not consistent. The pressure from the conservative part of the Emperor's environment forced him already in April 1861 to dismiss one of the developers of the peasant reform N. A. Milyutin and the Minister of Internal Affairs S. S. Lansky. The revision of the most radical provisions of the reforms carried out (primarily a judicial) begins under Alexander II.
In addition, reforms of the 1860-1870s. did not affect the political sphere. Russia remained an autocracy monarchy. The reaction of the emperor to the Resolution of the Gubernsky Nobility Meeting and the Meeting of World Intermediaries of the Tver Province in February 1862 on the need to convene "elected Russian land" to address issues, "initiated, but not permitted by the Regulation on February 19," was immediate: 13 participants in the World Meeting Intermediaries were planted to the Petropavlovsk fortress. In January 1865, with a proposal to convene a "general meeting of elected people from Russian land for discussion of the needs, the Moscow nobility, the Moscow Nobility appealed to Alexander II.
In the conditions of the rebellion in 1863 in Poland, the Minister of Internal Affairs P. A. Valuev proposed to introduce a certain semblance of a representative body to make a more attractive image of Russia in the eyes of the European Public. Alexander II approved the development of the project, which envisaged the introduction of elected representatives from the departments to the State Council of Elementary Power. When the uprising was suppressed and the threat of foreign intervention was passed, the project was sent to the archive.
In January 1861, the Minister of Internal Affairs M. T. Loris-Melikov presented Alexander II report, who received the name "Constitution Loris-Melikov" in the historical literature. According to the minister, "the vocation of society to participate in the development of the measures necessary for the present time there is exactly the means that is useful and necessary for the further fight against Kramoloy." Loris Melikov proposed to create a commission to develop issues related to the continuation of the reform course. On March 4, a meeting of the Council of Ministers was appointed chaired by the emperor to discuss the report of the Minister. But on March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by Grinevitsky People.
Alexander III counter doors. The main task of internal politics was the strengthening of the autocracy of the estate state system. One of the first documents signed by Alexander III was the manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" of April 29, 1881, prepared by the Ober-prosecutor of the Synod K. P. Victorious and the right publicist M. N. Katkov.
Alexander III considered the mistake of the reform of his father. He refused the continuation of the reforms proposed by Loris Melikov. There is a revision of the liberal reforms of the Board of Alexander II. The representation of the nobility in the deposits increases and the peasant self-government is limited. According to the new "urban position" of 1892, administrative interference with the activities of the city dooms increase. "Temporary regulations on the press" of 1882 led to tightening censorship: the Minister of the Interior and the Ober-Prosecutor of the Synod received the right to close any prior edition. In 1884, the autonomy of universities was eliminated. Circular "On the kitchers" of 1887 Minister of Folk Enlightenment I. D. Delianova closed the doors of the gymnasiums for children from the lower estates.
To support the nobility in 1885, a noble land bank was created, issued loan landowners on preferential terms on the security of land. "The provision on hiring on rural works" of 1886 expanded the rights of landowners when calculating the battags.
Measures are taken to mitigate the acute peasant and working issues. In 1881, redemptions decreased and a decree of mandatory transfer to the ransom until January 1, 1883 of all tempted peasants is taken. In 1882, the peasant marching bank was created, which gave loans to peasants to buy land. In 1886, the pillow was canceled. At the same time, direct taxes were increased by a third, indirect - 2 times.
In 1882, the factory inspection is created and a ban on children's labor under 12 years old is being introduced. Since 1885, the night work of women and children is prohibited. In 1886, 20% of earnings are limited to 20% of workers. At the same time, the law on the bunch of strikes is taken, in the case of which criminal penalty is provided - arrest or fine.
For economic DevelopmentRussia in the second half of the XIX century. The combination of old and new elements is characteristic - the development of capitalism and the preservation of remnants of serfdom. The economy develops accelerated pace. The folding of the Unified All-Russian Market is completed. But the preservation of landlord land tenure, the estate structure of society, the minor of the peasants is constrained by the economic development of Russia and become a factor in the growth of social tension.
The industry completes the coup, and at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The process of industrialization begins. Active railway construction becomes a factor in the growth of the economy and the capitalist evolution of the entire economy of the country. The number of industrial enterprises and the number of workers employed on them is invariably. At the same time, the formation of industries in different regions proceeds unequal. The active state intervention remains the basis for the origin of state capitalism in Russia. With capitalism in the Russian economy comes periodic crises of overproduction and financial crises.
In agriculture, a routine technique and old methods of land processing are preserved, the low marketability of the patriarchal peasant farm. The problem of small-earth peasants is exacerbated. The distribution is obtained by the workshop of peasants in landlord and waste.
Social movement.
The main directions in Russian public movement in the second half of the XIX century. There were conservative, liberal and radical.Conservatives (K. P. Victoronossev, M. N. Katkov, D. A. Tolstoy, etc.) advocated the strengthening of the autocratic monarchy, the preservation of landlord ownership of land, the spread of Orthodoxy as the spiritual basis of the state and the strengthening of repression against revolutionaries.
Liberals (K. D. Kavelin, Brothers N. A. and D. A. Milyutina, P. A. Valuev, N. Kh. Bungj, etc.) were supporters of the transition to a constitutional monarchy, expanding the rights of land and urban self-government, strengthening state power and development of capitalism as the basis for the economic success of Russia.
Radicals (V. K. Debogurry-Mokrievich, M. P. Kovalevskaya, S. L. Pereovskaya, A. I. Zhelyabov, N. A. Morozov, V. N. Figner and others.) Admitted for the violent democratization of the political system with The destruction of autocracy, the radical decision of the agricultural issue and the construction of peasant socialism in Russia.
Phealthy. Public subside of the 50s - early 60s. XIX century He contributed to the widespread dissemination of nationality ideas, the theoretical foundations of which were laid by A. I. Herzz and N. G. Chernyshevsky.
Basic ideas:
- the remnants of serfdom, primarily landlord landfill, should be destroyed;
- capitalism in Russia is put on top and has no social roots;
- Russian community is the finished cell of socialism;
- the future of the country - in community socialism;
- The penetration of capitalism leads to the destruction of the peasant community and gives a socialist perspective, so capitalism ulcers should not be admitted to Russia.
Representatives of the liberal direction of nationality denied violent methods of struggle, speaking for the distribution of literacy and the total rise in the cultural level of the people.
Revolutionary populists believed that transformations should be carried out by violent methods.
In revolutionary nationality developed three currents.
1) Bunlet (Anarchist) (M. A. Bakunin):
- the state is tool of violence and operation, it must be destroyed;
- to replace the state will come the Union of Self-Government Communities;
- Russian peasant - Buntar, ready for the revolution;
- The task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people, agitate and delay the All-Russian revolution from individual rebellion.
2) Propaganda (P. L. Lavrov):
- Russian people are not ready for an immediate revolution;
- Advanced intelligentsia ("Thinking people") must prepare peasants to revolution;
- The success of propaganda will provide a secret revolutionary organization.
3) conspiratorial (P. N. Tkachev):
- A little educated peasant will not be able to understand the ideas of socialism;
- The peasant is not ready for Bunt because of his conservatism and faith in the Tsar-Batyushka;
- to carry out a coup and start a socialist reorganization can only be a narrow group of professional revolutionaries by conspiracy.
M. A. Natanson, N. V. Tchaikovsky, the women's self-education circle of self-education A. I. Kornilovoy and S. L. Perovsky were the most famous from the people's organizations. In 1861-1864, the first organization "Earth and Will" operated. The second was created in 1876. In 1879, the "Earth and Will" on the "People's Volay" (supporters of the terror of A. I. Zhelya-bov, S. L. Perovskaya, A. D. Mikhailov, occurred at the Voronezh Congress. A. A. Morozov, V.N. Figner) and "Black Redone" (speaking for continued agitation among the peasants G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, P. B. Axelrod). On March 1, 1881, the persons managed to organize the murder of Emperor Alexander II, after which the populic organizations in Russia were actually defeated by the government. The leaders of populists who escaped from arrests were forced to immigrate.
Working movement. The reasons for the emergence of the labor movement in Russia are difficult working conditions in production, low wages, lack of labor protection and arbitrariness of entrepreneurs. After the abolition of serfdom, the number of working class is consistently growing. But the first "workers' laws" in Russia, regulating the relationship between hired workers and entrepreneurs, appear only in the early 1880s. In the 70s. XIX century The "South-Russian Union of Workers" (Odessa, E. O. Zaslavsky) and the Northern Union of Russian Workers (Petersburg, V. P. Obnorsky and S. N. Halturin). In the 80s. Marxism penetrates into the Russian working movement. Unlike populists, Marxists considered the main driving force of the socialist revolution not the peasantry, but the proletariat (working class) and advocated the creation of the working party. Capitalism was recognized by Marxists as a natural and necessary period in economic development, including for Russia, during which the material and technical base of the future communist society is created. Marxists opposed political terror as a means of struggle.
The first Russian Marxist organization "Labor Release" was established in Geneva in 1883 G. V. Plekhanov, L. G. Dychich, V. I. Zasulich, P. B. Axelrod and V. N. Ignatov. In Russia, the circles of DI Breyuva (1883-1885), P. V. Kotoski (1885- 1888), M. I. Brusneva (1889-1891) in St. Petersburg and N. E. Fedoseeva (1888) in Kazan. In 1895-1898 In St. Petersburg, there was a "union of struggle for the liberation of the working class", in which V. I. Ulyanov (Lenin), Yu. O. Tsedeerbaum (Martov) and other future leaders of the Russian Social Democracy took part. Members of Marxist circles were engaged in the study and distribution of Marxist ideas, published newspapers and proclamations for workers, organized demonstrations, led the strike movement.
Foreign policy.
The main task in the European direction After the Crimean War there was a way out of the international isolation and the revision of the conditions of the Paris Treaty of 1856. Taking advantage of the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. M. Gorchakov sends a circular note with the refusal of Russia to comply with the obligation not to have a military fleet on the Black Sea. At the London Conference in March 1871, the leading European powers agreed with the unilateral refusal of Russia on compliance with the principle of neutralization of the Black Sea and confirmed the closure of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits for military courts of all European powers.In 1873, the Union of Three Emperors - Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary was concluded. Despite the extension of the "Union" in 1881 and 1884. and signing in 1887 "Agreement of Reinsurance", relations between Russia on the one hand and Germany and Austria-Hungary on the other, which were concluded in 1882, an agreement with Italy and creating a three-way union against Russia and France continued to worsen.
In the early 1890s. There is a convergence of Russia and France. In 1891, a political agreement was concluded. In 1892 - Military Convention. The ratification by the Parties of the Military Convention in 1893 led to the design of the Russian-French Union, to which at the beginning of the XX century. England joined.
Thus, in Europe there are two hostile blocks. A new stage begins in international relations, which led in 1914 by the beginning of the First World War.
Balkan direction. In the 70s. XIX century The liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples against Turkish rule is enhanced. In 1875, an uprising began in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 1876 - in Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro declare war of Turkey. In Russia, there is a movement in defense of Slavic peoples. The ideas of pancalavism are widespread. In April 1877, Alexander II declares War of Turkey.
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 Went in two directions - Balkan and Caucasian. Main events at the Balkan Military Theater:
- capture of Shipkinsky Pass the detachment of General I. V. Gurko in July and his defense until December 1877;
- Siege since July 1877 and taking in November 1877. The Fortress of Pleven;
- Take January 4, 1878 by Russian troops and Bulgarian militias of Sofia;
- Take January 8, 1878 by the army of M. D. Skobelev Andrianopol;
- Taking in February 1878 by the Russian army of San Stefano in the immediate vicinity of Constantinople (Istanbul) and the signing of a treaty between Russia and Turkey.
In the Caucasian Theater of Military Action, Russian troops managed to capture the Turkish fortresses of Bayazet, Kars and Erzem.
England and Austria-Hungary refused to recognize the conditions of the San Stefan Treaty. They were revised at the Berlin Congress in the summer of 1878.
Central Asian direction. In the early 1860s. The joining of the Kazakh lands to Russia is completed, which leads to a conflict with Kokand Kolas. In 1863, the Special Committee decides on the start of hostilities. Hiking of Russian armies under the command of M. G. Chernyaeva, K. P. Kaufman and M. D. Skobelev ended with the accession of the Kokandsky and Khiva Khanni to Russia, the Bukhara Emirate. In 1884-1885 In Russia, the Oasis MEVR was entered. Russian-English agreements 1885 and 1898. The oases of Mevr, Pendines and Pamir were secured by Russia.
Far Eastern direction. Russia develops trade and diplomatic relations with China and Japan. Contracts of 1858 in Aigun and 1860 in Beijing was established the border between Russia and China. The source of tension in relations with Japan was the territorial dispute for the possession of smoking and the island of Sakhalin.
Without the ability to control long-range territory, Russia in 1867 sold Alaska to the United States of America.
Under Alexander III, Russia did not lead wars, in connection with which contemporaries called the Emperor to the peacemaker.
Culture.
Liberal reforms of the 1860-1870s., Capitalist modernization and the rise of the social movement contributed to the development of Russian culture.IN fine art A realism comes to replace Academicism with the mythological, biblical, antique and historical plots. In 1863, the group of graduates of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts refused to write diploma work on classic topics ("Bunth of Fourteen") and created "artist artists" at the head of I. N. Kramsky. In 1870, 23 artists (Myasoyedov, V. Persov, A. Savrasov, V. Sherewood, M. P. Klodt, N. Ge, I. Kramskaya, I. Repin, I. Shishkin et al.) Create A partnership of mobile art exhibitions "For the" deliveries of provincial residents of the provinces to get acquainted with Russian art and follow its success, "for the development of love for art in society and expand the possibilities of sales of works for artists. Subsequently, V. M. and A. M. Vasnetsov, A. I. Kindji, I. I. Levitan, V. D. Polenov, V. A. Serov, V. I. Surikov, and others.
I. N. Kramskaya worked in the portrait genre (portraits I. A. Goncharov, M. E. Saltykova-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasova, L. N. Tolstoy), V. A. Serov (portraits I. E. Repin , K. A. Korovina, I. I. Levitan, N. S. Leskova, A. M. Gorky, A. P. Chekhov, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov).
In the historic genre - I. E. Repin ("Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan", "Cossacks, writing a letter to the Turkish Sultan"), V. I. Surikov ("Morning Streletzka execution", "Menshikov in Birchov", "Morozova" ").
In the domestic genre - V. G. Pereov ("Tea'tei in Mytishchi", "Troika", "The arrival of the Basta"), I. E. Repin ("Burlaki on the Volga", "The Cross Troops in the Kursk Province", "Refusal from confession, "" did not wait ").
In the landscape genre - I. I. Shishkin ("Rye", "Morning in the Pine Forest", "Ship Grove"), I. I. Levitan ("After the rain", "Evening on the Volga", "Golden Autumn", " March").
Famous sculptors:
M. O. Mikeshin is a monument "Millennium of Russia" in Novgorod, Catherine II in St. Petersburg;
A. M. Peksinshin - a monument to Pushkin in St. Petersburg, Alexander II in the Moscow Kremlin, Alexander III at the Church of Christ the Savior;
M. M. Antokolsky - "Ivan Grozny", "Peter Great", "Nestor-Chronicler", "Ermak", "Christ in front of the people";
V. O. Sherwood, architect and sculptor - monuments of the heroes of the Plevna in Moscow, Alexander II in Samara;
In the architecture, Russian (non-Russian) style (A. N. Pomerances - Upper trade ranks (now - GUM), Historical Museum, City Duma in Moscow) and Eclectics (Style Mix) (architects A. N. Pomerancent, R. I. Klein, K. M. Bykovsky). At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Distribution gets the style of modern.
For realism as an artistic method of Russian literature, the second half of the XIX century. Characterized high citizenship, patriotism, nationality and emotional saturation.
Representatives of the culture of the second half of the XIX century.
| Dramaturgures | A. N. Ostrovsky | "Thunderstorm", "Forest", "Dustpannica", "Talents and fans", "without guilt guilt" |
| A. K. Tolstoy | "Death of John Grozny", "Tsar Fedor Ioannovich", "Tsar Boris" | |
| Writers | M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin | "Gubernsky essays", "History of one city", "Lord Golovyov", "Poshekhonsky stories" |
| I. S. Turgenev | "Rudin", "noble nest", "On the eve", "fathers and children" | |
| I. A. Goncharov | "Oblomov", "Open" | |
| F. M. Dostoevsky | "Notes from the Dead House", "humiliated and offended", "Crime and Punishment", "Idiot", "Brothers Karamazov" | |
| L. N. Tolstoy | "Sevastopol stories", "Caucasian prisoner", "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina" | |
| A. K. Tolstoy | "Prince Silver" | |
| G. I. Uspensky | Essays of Essays "Moral Roarseva Street" and "Razbean" | |
| V. G. Korolenko | "In a bad society", "Children of the Dungeon", "Blind Musician" | |
| N. S. Leskov | "Nowhere", "on the knives", "Lady McBet Mtsensky County", "Sobira", "Enchanted Wanderer" | |
| Poets | N. A. Nekrasov, A. K. Tolstoy, K. R. (led. KN. Konstantin Konstantinovich Romanov) | |
| Publicists | N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. K. Mikhailovsky |
In the late 50s - early 60s. XIX century There was a creative community russian composers, known as the "mighty hand" ("New Russian Music School", or Balakirevsky Circle). MA Balakirev (chapter and leader), A. P. Borodin, Ts A. Kyui, M. P. Mussorgsky, H. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. S. Gusakovsky, N. V. Shcherbachev. As the heirs and continuents of the traditions of M. I. Glinka and A. S. Dargomyzhsky, composers of the "Mighty Kuchka" were looking for new forms with this for the incarnation of themes and images from domestic history and modernity. These are the Opera Mussorgsky ("Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina"), Borodin ("Prince Igor"), Rimsky-Korsakov ("Pskovtyanka"). "Mighty hand" as a cohesive creative group ceased to exist in the mid-70s., But its ideas and creative principles have affected the further development of Russian music.
Public raising and development of capitalism also contributed to the development russian science.
P. L. Chebyshev, A. M. Lyapunov, S. V. Kovalevskaya - Fundamental and applied mathematical research;
A. G. Tzetov - research in the field of photovoltaic phenomena;
P. N. Apple - the invention of the arc lamp ("candle of an apple");
A. N. Lododyagin - invention of incandescent lamps;
A. S. Popov - invention of radio;
A. F. Mozhaisky - a project of an aircraft on steam engines;
A. M. Butlerov - the theory of the chemical structure of organic substances;
D. I. Mendeleev is a periodic law of chemical elements, the work on the economy "to the knowledge of Russia", "cherished thoughts";
V. V. Dokuchaev - work on the soil;
I. M. Sechenov - the foundations of the domestic physiological school;
I. I. Mechnikov - work in the field of microbiology, bacteriology and medicine;
S. M. Solovyov and V. O. Klyuchevsky - work on domestic history.
Russian researchers P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky, P. A. Kropotkin, N. M. Przhevalsky, N. Miklukho-Maclay, E. V. Toll.
Domestic policy.
The problem of modernization was aggravated in Russia at the turn of the centuries. Reforms of 1860-1870s. They were not completed and largely stopped during the reign of Alexander III. Socked social tensions caused by the development of new capitalist forms of management, which were conflict with the remnants of serfdom in the economic sphere and absolutism in the field of political.Political system. In Russia, the autocracy and the estate structure of society, which conflict with the changed historical conditions persisted. Social support of the autocracy remained the nobility, which has worked in the country's economic life. Representatives of other social layers, primarily the bourgeoisie, the economic position of which was strengthened every year, were not allowed to power. At the end of the throne, the new Emperor Nicholas II declared loyalty to the internal political course of his father Alexander III and in his policy, especially after the revolution 1905-1907, relied on the most conservative part of the nobility. The activities of political parties in Russia until October 1905 was banned.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas II was overshadowed by the Khodan tragedy - the death of people during the distribution of royal gifts on the occasion of the coronation of the emperor.
The Zemsky movement develops. Back in the 1870s, illegal meetings of the Member States began to be held with the aim of developing a common political program and coordinating speeches at Zemsky meetings (Zemskiy Congresses). In 1879, "Society of the Zemsky Union and Self-Government" was established at a large Zemsky Congress in Moscow ("Zemsky Union"). After the murder of Alexander II, the Zemsky Union formulated his basic political principles: the denial of government and revolutionary terror, decentralization of public administration, Central People's Representation (State Duma), the abolition of autocracy. In 1894, Nicholas II, on the occasion of his advantage of the throne, the provincial Zemsky collections raise the question of expanding the rights of zeal. But the king called such wishes by "meaningless dreams." Since 1900, the Zemskaya opposition regularly holds its congresses. In 1903-1905 There were 5 All-Russian Zemsky farms. In 1902, a group of liberal-minded land founds in Stuttgart, the magazine "Liberation" edited by P. B. Struve and publishes a program statement with the requirements of political freedoms and convocating in the "Highest Will" of the representative body with legislative rights. In November 1903, the Union of Earth Constitutionalists was established, in January 1904 - the Union of Liberation, which was the basis for creating in the subsequent party of Cadets. Without opportunities for legal political activities, Zemstvo in the fall of 1904 organize a "banquet campaign" on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Zemstvo reform. The central event of the campaign was the Congress of Zemstvo on November 6-9, 1904, which developed a program of political reforms: convocating "freely elected representatives of the people" with the endowment of this body by legislative rights, the introduction of civil liberties and equality of estates, expansion of the composition and circle of local self-government.
Nicholas II was outraged by the decisions of the Zemstvo Congress, but on December 12, 1904 it was forced to release a decree "On measures to improve the state order", in which he promised to expand the rights of zeal, revise the laws on peasants, old-handed, printing and exclusive position.
One of the ways to distract the population from internal problems could be the "Little Victorious War", the need for which in January 1904. The Minister of Internal Affairs V. K. Plev said to General A. N. Kurophatkin. But the war with Japan began on January 26, 1904 was unsuccessful and exacerbated the situation in Russia.
Trying to weaken the effect of underground revolutionary parties on the workers and put the working movement under government control, at the beginning of the XX century. The creation of workers of trade unions, controlled police (Zubatovshchina, or police socialism) were allowed. But this did not remove social tension, and the execution of January 9, 1905, organized by Gapon's procession to the king became the beginning of the first Russian revolution (bloody Sunday).
Causes of the revolution 1905-1907:
- The need for political reforms. Autocracy became an outdated form of state power that did not meet the interests of society;
- the absence of democratic freedoms (freedom of speech, press, assembly), guarantees of the person of personality and the ban to create political parties and unions;
- the unresolvedness of an agricultural question: preservation of landlord land tenure, caulalers, redemption;
- deterioration in the material situation of workers in the context of the global economic crisis of 1900-1903., Heavy working conditions, legal vulnerability of workers before the arbitrariness of entrepreneurs;
- The national question: the inequality of the peoples of national outflows.
Tasks of the revolution 1905-1907:
- the overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of the Democratic Republic;
- the introduction of democratic freedoms;
- the elimination of landlord land tenure, the return of land segments and the abolition of redemption payments;
- Reducing the working day in enterprises, creating trade unions to protect the rights of workers;
- Establishment of equality of all nations of Russia, creating opportunities for their free development.
The nature of the revolution 1905-1907:
- according to the tasks - bourgeois,
- on the driving forces (participants) - democratic.
Stages of revolution 1905-1907:
- First stage: January-December 1905 - the beginning and strengthening of the revolutionary movement,
- Second Stage: January 1906 - June 3, 1907 - a decline in revolutionary speeches.
During the revolution, the authorities of the rebeling masses are created. The first council was the Council of Commissioners, organized in May 1905 by the strikers of textile and weaving enterprises in Ivanovo-Voznesensk (now G. Ivanovo). It was a strike committee that managed the strike struggle for the example of factory councils in Europe. In the autumn of 1905, the advice of workers, soldiers, railway, Cossack, sailor, Batratsk and peasant deputies are organized in many cities and villages. The arbit as the bodies of the rebel masses, they acted with the victory as a revolutionary government. Propagandists of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe authorities of the Soviets as the highest form of democracy were initially A. L. Parvus and L. D. Trotsky (Leaders of the St. Petersburg Council), Mensheviki, Maximetic Esters. V.I. Lenin nominated the idea of \u200b\u200badvice as the form of a political organization of workers in the struggle for the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat.
During the first Russian revolution, 62 councils of workers, soldiers and peasant deputies arose. 47 Soviets were headed by Bolsheviks or were under their influence, 10 headed Mensheviks.
The Oktyabrskaya All-Russian Political Age of 1905 and the December armed uprising in Moscow became the highest point of development of the revolution. During the December uprising in Moscow, the Moscow Council of Workers 'Deputies, headed by Bolsheviks, led the workers' uprising, becoming revolutionary authorities.
The revolutionary performances of the workers, peasants and the uprising on the fleet forced the emperor to go to a number of concessions. Announcement in August 1905 on the convening of the Law of the Law of the State Duma ("Boyloginskaya Duma") could not be discharged. Therefore, the manifesto "On the improvement of state order" on October 17, 1905, Nicholas II proclaimed democratic freedoms in Russia and announced the convening of the legislative state Duma (see table "The composition of the State Duma 1906-1917, p. 213). The creation of political parties and unions is allowed (see the table "The positions of the main parties in the revolution 1905-1907", p. 214). Deconsions of November 3, 1905, redemptions in 1906 decreased by 2 times, from January 1, 1907 were completely abolished, and the peasant gymnasic bank was allowed to produce loans to the peasants not at 90, but under 100% of the estimated value of the acquired area. On November 9, 1906, the Stolypin agrarian reform began.
On April 23, 1906, Nicholas II approved the Code of Basic State Laws, according to which the two-chamber legislative parliament was created in Russia (the State Council - the Upper Chamber, the State Duma - the Lower Chamber). The laws were subject to approval by the emperor. The executive power in the country was obeyed only by the emperor. The main state laws of the Duma could change only at the initiative of the emperor himself.
The dissolution on June 2, 1907 of the II State Duma and the Edition of June 3, 1907. Nicholas II of the new electoral law without approval of the Duma ("Treysian revolution") is considered to be the end of the first Russian revolution.
Revolution results 1905-1907:
- the transformation of Russia to the constitutional monarchy with the two-chamber parliament began;
- Freedom of speech, press, parties and unions are introduced;
- Created legal political parties;
- improved the position of the proletariat (reduction of the duration of the working day and the increase in salaries in a number of industries);
- improved the position of the peasantry (the abolition of redemption payments, eliminated the legal restrictions on the peasants as owners, during the Stolypin reform began the process of community destruction);
- Pali authority autocracy;
- The emperor retained the right to adopt laws and the full full of executive;
- preserved land ownership;
- The problem of the peasant small ground is not solved.
Repressive government measures - the persecution of revolutionary parties and democratic organizations, the arrests of the participants of the revolution, the closure of the trade union and democratic newspapers and magazines were temporary success. Since 1910, a new socio-political crisis has been brewing in Russia.
Economic development.
Liberal reforms of the 1860-1870s A short time, but also shifting the stages of folding the factory production system and a different sequence of agrarian-capitalist and industrial coups. At the turn of the centuries, the process of industrialization and monopolization of the economy begins.Features of the economic development of Russia at the end of the XIX - early XX W.:
- Railway construction in Russia turned to an industrial coup and became a powerful incentive of both industrialization and the capitalist evolution of the entire economic system;
- Russian factory production in many industries due to the export of equipment and technologies was evolved without passing the preceding stages - crafts and trade;
- a combination of modern capitalist industries and a financial and banking system with a backward agrarian sector, since the industrial coup in Russia preceded the bourgeois-democratic revolution, and the agrarian-capitalist coup initiated by Stolypin reform;
- active support and intervention of an autocratic state into economic processes;
- The Russian state was the major owner of industrial enterprises, railways, communications enterprises, a state bank, which generated the problem of bureaucratic capital and led to the formation of a system of state-monopoly capitalism;
- Active importation of foreign capital, due to the stability of the monetary system and the possibility of obtaining super-profits due to the cheap labor and huge raw materials.
The Russian economy is increasingly included in global economic processes, experiencing periodic economic crises characteristic of capitalism. After industrial lifting 1890s. Russia is experiencing a decline in production during the world economic crisis 1900-1903., Industrial stagnation in 1904-1908. And the new rise in 1909-1913.
There is a process of creating monopolies. If in the 1880-1890s. These are cartels ("Zrovostrovoz"), then from 1902 - Syndicates ("selling", "Production", "Production", "Nobel-Mazut"), since 1909 - trusts (operated mainly foreign, for example, " Dutch-Shell) and concerns (Kolomna-Sormovo, Putilovsko-Nevsky).
In the 1890s. The government has a rethinking of an agrarian problem as a key to economic growth of the country and political survival of the regime. There is a search for new approaches to solving it. Agriculture Ministers A. S. Yermolov, Finance S. Yu. Witte, internal affairs V. K. Plevie The cause of land hunger was considered the low efficiency of agricultural production caused by the insufficient level of development of market relations. Wine everything is a community land use system. Special Government Commission chaired by S. Yu. Witte ("Special Meeting on the Needs of the Agricultural Industry") in 1902-1905. The transformation program was developed, which provided for the individualization and intensification of peasant farms through the destruction of the community, the transformation of the peasant farm into the system of small private ownership with the simultaneous increase in peasant puts in the expansion of the sale of the peasants of the noble lands both directly and through the peasant bank.
The proposals of the "Special Meeting" formed the basis of the Stolypin Agrarian Reform:
- the right to exit peasants from the community;
- the right to allocate from community lands and consolidate his station in private property (cut);
- the right to transfer to put on its estate, creating a farmer;
- state support for migrating policies;
- expansion of civil rights of peasants.
In the course of the Stolypin agrarian reform, the economic sustainability of peasant farms has strengthened, their marketability and market orientation increased. The process of economic bundling of the peasantry accelerated, the number of rural bourgeoisie, organized profitable, market-oriented farms increased.
However, from 1906 to 1917, 26% of the peasants who secured 15% of community lands were out of the community. On the outskirts of imbey (Siberia, Central Asia) in 1906-1914. Less than 3 million people. Of these, 1 million 133 thousand people have been equipped, more than 1 million (27.2%) were returned, completely broken, failed to find themselves in a new place. The arrival of Russian immigrants to the national regions of the Empire led to an increase in collisions on national soil.
The main task is to turn the peasant in support of political system - during the Stolypin reform failed. The peasantry continued to act with the requirements of the elimination of landowners.
Thus, the situation of the country is characterized by the situation of "imposition of epochs" and multipleness that generated a complex node of social contradictions and conflicts, one of whose permissions is the revolution.
Foreign policy.
At the end of the XIX - early XX century. Due to the struggle of the holding for the redistribution of the world there was a tense international situation. In 1898, Russia made a proposal for universal restriction of weapons. In 1899, the first, in 1907, the second peaceful international conferences, laid the foundations of modern humanitarian law, determining the procedure for peaceful resolution of international conflicts, laws of warfare (ban on the use of certain types of weapons, etc.). But the proposals of Russia for the restriction of weapons were not accepted. In Europe, there is a process of forming military-political blocks. The re-equipment programs are carried out.Far Eastern direction. European powers, the USA and Japan seek to divide the Far East on the spheres of influence. At the end of the XIX century. Russia strengthens its position in the Far East and strengthens influence in China. In 1891, the construction of the Siberian railway line from Chelyabinsk to Vladivostok begins (completed in 1905). In 1895, the Russian-Chinese bank was established. In 1896, a secret agreement was concluded with China about the defensive union against Japan, who prepared the invasion of Manchuria, and the construction of the Sino-Eastern Railway (FC) begins. In 1898, Russia concludes an agreement with China for rent for 25 years of the Liaodo Peninsula and Port Arthur, where the Russian naval base was created. In 1900, Russian troops were introduced to suppressing a boxer uprising in Manchuria. The detachment of General N. P. Linevich frees Beijing from the rebels. In 1896, Japan and Russia recognize the equality of their rights to Korea, but already in 1898, Japan had achieved recognition of the priority of Japanese economic interests in this country from Russia. In 1902, Japan and England conclude an allied contract against Russia. Under the pressure of England and the United States, Russia begins to withdraw its troops from Manchuria. In 1903, Japan suggests Russia to conclude an agreement on the division of spheres of influence in China, but preparing for war, delays and ultimately disrupts negotiations. January 24 (February 6, N.St.) 1904 Japan breaks diplomatic relations with Russia. January 26 (February 8, N.St.) begins military operations, and on January 28 (February 10) declares the war of Russia.
According to the results of the Russian-Japanese War unsuccessful for Russia, 1904-1905. In the city of Portsmouth (USA), a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia recognized Korea to the sphere of influence of Japan, handed it to the right to rent a Liaodong Peninsula with Port Artur, lost the southern part of Sakhalin and the island adjacent to him. Thanks to the efforts of the head of the Russian delegation, S. Yu. Witte, a number of requirements of Japan, in particular, the payment of the Contribution, were rejected. The conditions of the Portsmouth Treaty were regarded as a diplomatic success of Russia. S. Yu. Witte received a count title. But in opposition circles, he was called "half ahalin graphic."
European direction. At the beginning of the reign of Nicholas II, in European affairs, "calm" was continued (according to the Minister of Foreign Affairs N. K. Girs) the policy necessary to address the tasks of modernizing the country and strengthening Russian influence in the Far East. During the Russian-Japanese war, Russia actually found itself in international isolation, since in China and Korea, Russia's interests were faced with the interests of not only Japan, but also the European powers. In 1907, the conclusion between Russia and the UK agreement on the division of spheres in Iran and Central Asia, the formation of triple agreements (antita) - the Union of Russia, France and the United Kingdom, directed against Germany, Austria-Hungary and countries attached to the Tripal Union (Turkey , Bulgaria, etc.). Weakened during the Russian-Japanese war and revolution 1905-1907, Russia did not take active actions during the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909. and two Balkan wars 1912-1913. But the strengthening of the positions supported by Germany Austria-Hungary in the Balkans contradicted with Russian interests. The need to solve traditional issues of the Russian foreign policy of influence on the Balkans, control over the Black Sea Strait and maintaining a pan-European balance of forces have drawn Russia into a complex complex of European contradictions that led to the beginning of the First World War. In the First World War, 38 states with a population of over 1.5 billion people participated.
Causes of the First World War:
- Attempts to revise the results of the world's colonial section of the world completed by the beginning of the 20th century;
- In connection with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the struggle for the redistribution of spheres of influence in the Balkans, in the Middle East and in the zone of the straits.
Reason The war was the murder in June 1914 of the heir to the Austrian throne of Erzgertzog Franz Ferdinand.
Russia's participation in the First World War. July 19 (August 1) the war of Russia declared Germany, July 24 (August 6) - Austria-Hungary, October 20 - Turkey. In 1914, none of the parties achieved decisive success. Germany failed to light up and alternately and alternately defeat France and Russia. In 1915, Russia lost Poland, Galicia, part of the Baltic states, Western Belarus and Ukraine and was defended. War in Europe has gained positional in nature. In May-July 1916, as a result of the offensive of the Russian troops (Brusilovsky breakthrough), the troops of Austria-Hungary were defeated, but the success could not be developed. Military actions in the Caucasian front against Turkey were more successful for Russia. In late 1914 - early 1915, during Sarykamysh, the breeze of the breech part of the Transcaucasus. In the course of the Alashkertic operation of 1915, an attempt was raised by the Turkish army to defeat the 4th Caucasian Corps and go to the Kars Fortress. The Erzerum and Trapezund Operations of 1916 ended with the Russian troops of Erzemum and Trapezund.
Failures on the front against Germany and the exacerbation of the internal economic and political situation did the war unpopular in Russia. Anti-war moods grow in the country. In 1917, the Russian army was completely demoralized. November 20 (December 3, N. Art.) The Bolsheviks who came to power begin to negotiate the world, which ended with the signing of March 3, 1918 of the Separate Brest world with Germany.
Culture.
Modernization processes in the economic and socio-political sphere influenced the development of Russian culture at the end of the XIX - early XX century. This period was called the Silver Age of Russian Culture.For artistic culture, a variety of styles, directions, ideas and methods is characterized. In the literature, along with recognized classics of realism (L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko) The popularity of new authors (M. Gorky, A. I. Kubrin, L. Andreev) and a new artistic method - modernism. In poetry, various flows of decades are developing - symbolism, acmeism, futurism.
IN painting The traditions of realism continue to I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, Vasnetsov brothers. In 1903, "Union of Russian Artists" was created in Moscow (K. John, I. Grabar, A. Rylov), the style of which combined the realistic traditions of the Mobile and the experience of impressionism in the transmission of air and light. Various currents of modernity appear:
- miriskusniki (members of the Creative Union "World of Art" created in 1898) A. N. Benua, K. A. Somov, L. S. Bakst, E. E. Lancere, N. K. Rerich, and others.
- avangandists:
Supporters symbolism M. S. Sarian and P. V. Kuznetsov (exhibition "Blue Rose", 1907);
fans impressionism P. Cesanna I. fOVIZMA A. Matisse P. P. Konchalovsky, M. F. Larionov, R. R. Falk (exhibition and association "Bubnovaya Valet", 1910);
primitivists M. F. Larionov, N. S. Goncharov, K. S. Malevich, K. M. Zdanevich, A. V. Shevchenko, S. P. Bobrov, V. E. Tatlin, M. Z. Shagal (group of young Artists, led by M. F. Larionov, separated from the "Bubnovaya Vault" and organized two exhibitions and an association of the "donkey tail" in 1912);
"Analytical Art" Pavel Filonova, who overcomed the main lack of cubism - immobility of geometric forms and transmitted objects of objects in a state of "organic growth";
cubeturism (D. D. Burluk, N. A. Udaltsova, works K. S. Malevich 1913-1914.);
suprematism - Direction in avant-garde art, founded in the first half of the 1910s. In Russia, K. S. Malevich. Suprematism was expressed in devoid of the visual meaning of the combinations of multi-colored planes of the simplest geometric outlines (in the geometric shapes of a straight line, square, a circle and a rectangle);
constructivism (Works V. E. Tatlin after 1914).
In the sculpture, preference was given not to careful elaboration of the form, but an artistic generalization. The features of impressionism were manifested in the work of sculptors P. P. Trubetsky ("Lion Tolstoy on a horse", a monument to Alexander III) and A. S. Goluboyna ("Old age", "Wave (Swimmer)", relief on the MHT building in Moscow). Diverse on topics and stylistics Creativity S. T. Konunova ("Lesovik", "old-wood-wilderness", "Nika", "Sleep", busts A. P. Chekhov, publisher P. P. Konchalovsky).
IN architectureit is observed as an appeal to the traditions of classical architecture, ancient Russian architecture, to national reasons and the search for new architectural solutions in the spirit of modernity: the use of new materials (reinforced concrete, steel, glass), refusal of symmetry, smooth lines and rich decor.
Basic styles B. architecture were:
- Neorussky (A. V. Shushev - Temple Sergius Radonezh in the Kulikov field, Kazan station in Moscow);
- Neoclassicism (R. I. Klein - Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow (now - State Museum of Fine Arts A. S. Pushkin); I. A. Fomin - Building of the Island of the starvations in St. Petersburg; F. I. Lidval - Hotel "Astoria" in St. Petersburg; I. V. Zholtovsky - a house of a parking society in Moscow);
- Modern (V. F. Walcot - Hotel Metropol in Moscow; F. I. Shechtel - Mansions S. P. Ryabushinsky and Z. G. Morozova, Yaroslavsky Station, Art Theater in Moscow, V. V. Gorodetsky - House with chimers in Kiev).
Russian realistic theatre Located in dawn. In 1898, the efforts of V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko and K. S. Stanislavsky was opened by the Moscow artistic publicly available theater (MHT). Directed by the director K. S. Stanislavsky received world recognition. The search for the new scenographic style is filled with the activities of the Camera Theater in Moscow A. Ya. Tairova. In these years, the creative activity of theatrical directories-reformers V. E. Meyerhold and E. B. Vakhtangov begins. At the scene, actors I. M. Moskvin, V. F. Commissionerzhevskaya, singers F. I. Shalyapin, L. V. Sobinov, A. V. Nezhdanov, ballet artists A. P. Pavlova, T. P. Karsavina, in . F. Nizhinsky. Fame received choreographer M. I. Petipov, composers S. V. Rakhmaninov, A. N. Scriabin, A. K. Lyadov.
The event for European culture was organized by S. P. Dyagilev "Russian seasons" - tour in Paris and other cities of Europe of Russian artists opera and ballet in 1907-1913.
In 1908, the premiere of the first Russian 7-minute silent film "Ponizova Wolnitsa" ("Wallpoint"). Already in 1911, a full-length film director V. M. Goncharov and A. A. Khanzhonkov "Defense of Sevastopol" comes to screens. In 1909, the "Bakhchisarai Fountain" ribbon debuts director Ya. A. Protazanov. Stars of silent movies became actors Ivan Mozyzhukhin, Vera Cold, Witold Polonsky.
Significant achievements belong to Russian scientists. The Russian scientists of I. P. Pavlov (1904) and I. I. Mechnikov (1908) were awarded with the laureates of the Nobel Prize.
Achievements of Russian science at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries.
| Physics | P. N. Lebedev | Substantiated electromagnetic theory of light |
| A. S. Popov | Invention of radio | |
| Chemistry | S. V. Lebedev | Synthetic rubber |
| Maths | N. E. Zhukovsky | Airplane |
| K. E. Tsiolkovsky | The theory of reactive movement, laid the basics of cosmonautics | |
| Biology and medicine | I. P. Pavlov | The doctrine of higher nervous activity |
| I. I. Mesnikov | Phagocytic theory of immunity and basics of evolutionary embryology | |
| Story | S. F. Platonov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Chematov, L. P. Karsavin |
|
| Sociology | M. M. Kovalevsky, P. A. Sorokin |
|
| Economy | M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky | |
| Philosophy | N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, S. L. Frank, L. Shestov, S. N. Trubetskaya |
|
| V. I. Vernadsky | Work on geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, creating a noosphere | |
| P. B. Struve | Work on economics, sociology, philosophy |
More democratic becomes education system. According to the census of 1897, 21.1% of the population were competent in Russia. Society discussed the problem of eliminating the illiteracy and introduction of universal primary education. The universal learning project was developed by the Ministry of National Education in 1906. Although he did not gain the power of the law, the state allocations for the development of the education system, the opening of new schools, primarily the initial one. State appropriations on primary education from 1906 to 1911 increased more than 4 times: from 9.144 million to 39.65 million rubles. From 1894 to 1915, the number of primary schools increased 4 times. Sunday schools, work courses, People's Universities (University of A. L. Shanyavsky and others) are opened.
An important educational role was played periodic printing and book publishing. Book publishers A. F. Marx, A. S. Suvorin, I. D. Saten, Brothers of Sabashnikov, and others. Let's produce a large number of popular literature and public books for the people: "Cheap Library" A. S. Suvorin, "Self-education library", "The People's Encyclopedia of Scientific and Applied Knowledge", cheap editions of the collections of the compositions of Russian Classics and Lubki I. D. Sotina, etc.
Russia in the second half of the XIX century
On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nikolai I, his son Alexander II entered the throne. His Board (1855-1881) passed under the sign of the deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the elimination of serfdom And the legislative acts approved the "Regulations on the peasants who came out of the fortress dependence". In 1864, Zemskoy self-government was introduced (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), the court of jury and the bar, in 1870 - the city government, in 1874 - the Universal Military Meament.
In 1863, a rebellion broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to complete the Caucasian War, which lasted 47 years. Accession to Russia in 1865-1876. The considerable territories of Central Asia delivered the royal administration before the need to organize control of the remote inocultural outskirts.
Reforms of 1860-1870s. led to a sharp increase in the economy and especially the industry. The most notable aspect of this growth was the "Railway Bum" of the second half of the 1860s of the 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kiev (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the XIX century. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the conditions of the abolition of serfdom, the peasants should have redeem their land. "Redempted payments" fell by heavy burden on rural societies and were often stretched for many years, which caused more than 1,300 mass peasant performances, of which more than 500 were suppressed with the use of force. Community land use (the inability to dispose of their postal) and Malozhemnel caused the peasants discontent and held back the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to strengthening the operation of workers.
The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who considered, were widespread in society at this time. That the ideal state structure can only be established on the principles of distributing the usual Russian village of communal orders on the whole society. The means of reorganizing public life, they saw the universal peasant uprising. To prepare this All-Russian peasant rebellion, the revolutionary youth tried to establish the propaganda of his ideas among the peasants ("walking in the people" in 1874-1875), but in the peasant environment, naive-monarchical sentiments were still very strong. A part of young people mistakenly believed that the king of the king would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt was happening at Alexander II, and in 1879 there was a secret organization "Folk Volya", who settled terror against the prominent employees of the royal administration, and as the highest goal - a kingdom. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the "populists", but the peasant revolution did not happen.
The king was the son of Alexander II - Alexander III. For his rule (1881-1894), security trends were characterized. The new monarch sought to strengthen the state apparatus in every way and increase the country's handling. To do this, he went to the partial turning of the transformations that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography, this period was called "Period of Counterformation". In the villages there were Zemstvo Chiefs (nobles), who managed peasant affairs; In the provinces, security departments were established to combat revolutionary motion. The rights of land self-government were significantly limited, and the elected system is changed to ensure the predominance of delegates from landowners. Reaction changes were made to the judicial and censorship. On the other hand, the Alexander III administration sought to act as a social arbitrator. The government was forced to adopt the laws that restricted the operation of workers. In 1883, the pillow was canceled.
Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II entered the throne, which, as well as his father fought against liberal trends and was a consistent supporter of the absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably to refer to one or another innovations and transformations if they wore Tactical character and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, in the Board of Nicholas II (1894-1917), gold support of the ruble and the state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly recovered the finance of the country. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, tied the Far Eastern List with the Central Regions of Russia. In 1897 was held First All-Russian Census of the Population.
The liberation of peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence of a large number of industrial and trading enterprises, banks, construction of railways, the development of agricultural production. By the end of the XIX century. The number of workers has increased twice and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900 The share of large enterprises has grown from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, the workers on them - from 67 to 76%.
The increase in the number of proletariat was accompanied by the emergence of the first revolutionary working organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva were united in the Labor Liberation group, which began the beginning marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of the Russian Social Democracy, the final goal of which was proclaimed by the creation of the Workers' Party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power to the working class, the transfer of funds and instruments of production to public property, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. The publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to occur in Russia (by the end of the XIX century. They were about 30). In 1892, in Samara began the revolutionary activities V. I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924). In 1895, together with the participants of the Marxist circle of students of technologists (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, M. Krzhizhanovsky, etc.) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B. I. Zinoviev, etc.) Lenin created the organization in St. Petersburg "Union of the struggle for the liberation of the working class", which was soon defeated by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.
In 1898, the congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Yekaterinoslav "Unions of the struggle" and Bund (Party of the Jewish Proletariat) took place in Minsk. Congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party (RSDLP) and elected the Central Committee (CC). On behalf of the Congress of the Central Committee Manifesto RSDDPIn which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and his party were briefed. However, the party has not yet had a program and the charter, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational breakdown.
In 1855, the Kuril Islands were officially included in Russia. Accession of the Amur region and Primorye was issued Aigunsky (1858) and Pekinsky (1860) contracts With China. According to the Aigong Agreement, the ownership of Russia was recognized on the left bank of the Amur, and Primorye (Ussuriy Territory) was departed to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island moved to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governorship General was formed from the attached possessions of the Kokand Khanate and Bukhara Emirate. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kat-Kurgan districts of the Bukhara Emirate, which acknowledged the Protectorate of Russia were attached to Russia. In 1869, the Custinian Military Department with the Center in Krasnovodsk was formed. After 1881, the Custinian region was formed with the center in Ashabad. By agreement with the United Kingdom (England) on September 10, 1885, the border of Russia was established with Afghanistan, and in 1895 - the border on the Pamir.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in the Turkish ownership of Russia in the Balkans. Serbs turned for help to the Russian government, which demanded from Turkey to conclude a truce with Serbs. The rejection of the Turks caused the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, the Russian troops forced the Danube and entered Bulgaria.
However, forces for a decisive occurrence lacked. A naughty detachment of General Gurko took Shipkinsky Pass in the Balkan Range, but could not advance further. On the other hand, the numerous attempts of the Turks knock the Russians with the pass were also not crowned with success. Especially dangerous was the lateness of the Russians with the occupation of the piers on the Western Face of the Sannaya Bridgehead. Turkish troops first reached this strategically important point and entrenched in it. Three extremely bloody storms 8 (20), 18 (30), July 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were not crowned with success. In the autumn, the Russians occupied the strengthening of the Telish and Mountain Dubnyak, finally blocking the spine. Trying to support the surrounded fortress, the Turks undertook a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia, and on the eastern faces of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, Turkish counterattack was reflected, and the eastern front of the Russian location was broken, and only the desperate counterattack of Russian troops, which has twisted Turkish orders under Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the ability to resist, after an unsuccessful breakthrough attempt, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10) of 1877 in the winter of 1877-1878. In incredibly hard weather conditions, the Russian troops forced the Balkan ridge and caused the Turks a decisive defeat with Shainovo. January 3-5 (15-17) January 1878. The last Turkish army was divided into the battle under Philippopol (Plovdiv), and 8 (20) January, Russian troops occupied Adrianopol without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treatment on July 13, 1878, South Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were attached to Russia.
Directions in the literature and art that established in the first half of the XIX century, they received their further development and in the second half of the XIX century. - early XX century.
Reforms of 1860-1870s. Represented a real coup, the consequence of which were fundamental changes in the social, state and all folk life, which could not affect the development of culture. It happened not only the social, but also spiritual liberation of the people, whose new cultural queries appeared and satisfy them. Significantly expanded the circle of persons of intelligent labor, carriers of culture. An important importance also had scientific and technological progress, which served and factors, and an indicator of cultural development.
Start XX century. - This is the "silver age" of Russian culture, first of all in the field of literature and art. Russia firmly entered the system of world powers, closely interconnected by economic, political and cultural uzami. In Russia, there were widespread applications of the innovations of the scientific and technological progress of advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, car, etc.), reaching the exact sciences; Various directions were widespread in literature and art. And global culture has significantly enriched in the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Speeches of Russian composers, opera singers, ballet masters took place in the famous theaters of Italy, France, Germany, England, USA.
IN russian literature The second half of the XIX century Especially bright image received the topics of people's life, various social and political flows. At this time, there is a flourishing of creativity of the prominent Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykova-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasova, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky. In the 1880-1890s. A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out in Russian literature. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the work of those who came in the literature at the beginning of the XX century. New Generation Writers - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kupina, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this direction, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations arise, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. The poet V. Ya. Bryusov was the associations of symbolists (creators and theorist of the Russian symbolism) belonged to K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Hippius, A. White, A. A. Block. The opposite symbolism direction, aqmeism arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist flow in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values \u200b\u200b(V. V. Khlebnikov, Igor Northerner, Early V. V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Small Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of the Russian theater culture In the second half of the XIX century. - early XX century. In the repertoire of the Small Theater, the playful place was occupied by A. N. Ostrovsky. Among the actors of the Small Theater, Sadovsky, Sergey Shsky, Maria Ermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yazzhin, and others, were shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Streptova.
In the 1860-1870s. Private theaters and theatrical mugs began to occur. In 1898, in Moscow, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater, and in 1904 in St. Petersburg, V. F. Commissioner, created a dramatic theater.
The second half of the XIX century. - Time is bloom russian musical art. Anton and Nikolay Rubinsteins played a large role in the development and organization of musical education. N. G. Rubinstein became the initiator of the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the "Balakirevsky circle" (or according to V. Stasova "Mighty Cup") was formed in St. Petersburg, where M. A. Balakirev, Ts A. Kyui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Opera Mussorgsky "Hovanshchina" and "Boris Godunov", Roman Corsakov "Sadko", "Pskovtyanka" and "Tsarist Bride" are the masterpieces of the Russian and world music classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose flowering of creativity is accounted for in 1870-1880. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (Ballets "Swan Lake", "Nutcracker", "Sleeping Beauty"; Opera "Eugene Onegin", "Peak Lady", "Mazepa", "Iolanta" and others .). Tchaikovsky is written over one hundred romances, mainly by the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the XIX early XX centuries. The Pleiad of Talented Composers appeared in Russian music: A. K. Glazunov, S. I. Taneyev, A. S. Arensky, A. K. Lyadov, I. F. Stravinsky, A. N. Scriabin. With the help of rich patrons, private operas arise, among which the private opera S. I. Mamontov received wide fame in Moscow. On its scene, the talent of F. I. Shalyapin fully opened.
IN russian painting The dominant situation took critical realism, the main topic of which was the image of the life of a simple people, primarily the peasantry. First of all, this topic has found its embodiment in the work of the Movie Artists (I. N. Kramskaya, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Verov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Measodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repein, A. I. Kindji, I. I. Levitan). The outstanding representative of the Russian battle painting was V. Vereshchagin, the largest marinist artist - I. K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists "The World of Art" appeared, in which A. N. Benua, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N. K. Roerich, I. E. Grabar.
Implementation in architecture The achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the country's industrial development: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Modern, along with whom the buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine style were erected: the top trading rows (now GUM, ARH. A. N. Pomerancers), buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (Arch. V. O. Sherwood) and Moscow City Duma ( Arch. D. N. Chichagov), etc.
A significant event in public and cultural life was the discovery of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, the sculptor A. M. Pekpeshin), among the outstanding sculptors of this time allocated: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubanka, with . T. Konenkov.
Successfully developed the science. With the name of the great scientist D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) associated with the opening of the periodic system of elements; Research I. M. Sechenov in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity continued I. P. Pavlov; I. I. Mesnikov created the doctrine on the protective factors of the body, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
"Father of Russian Aviation" E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the aerodynamic pipe and founded the Aerodynamic Institute in 1904; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation of the theory of movement of rockets and jet devices. Academician V. I. Vernadsky gave the beginning of many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, ecology. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian School of Plant Physiology.
With the development of natural sciences, technical discoveries and inventions are connected: the creation of an electric incandescent bulb (A. N. Lododynikin), an arc lamp (P. N. Apple), radio communication (A. S. Popov).
An outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed the fundamental work of the "History of Russia from ancient times", in which substantiated a new concept, explaining the domestic history by the natural and ethnic features of the Russian people.
Cancellation of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900. Russia has become agricultural in the agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the XIX century. In industrial production, she ranked fifth, after the United States, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia joined a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and having received the raw material base for the textile industry. At the Far East, the Amur region and Ussuri Primorye were attached, and the ownership of Sakhalin (instead of the concession of the Kuril Islands). The political rapprochement began with France.
The revolutionary movement of populists could not raise the peasants to the uprising, terror against the Tsar and the Supreme officials turned out to be insolvent. In the 1880s. The spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.
