Orthodox philosophical schools of ancient India. Review of the schools of philosophy of ancient India Indian School of Philosophy

The philosophy of Ancient India was deeply traditionalist, it was formed as a result of the isolation of the intellectual side of the religious and mythological ritual and almost always retained a close connection with the religious and mythological elements of the culture of Ancient India. In the VI - V centuries. BC in India, along with philosophical schools that did not reject the authority of the Vedas (sacred mythologized knowledge that included tribal beliefs and customs, as well as the ritual practice of an archaic society), a number of schools appeared that were critical of the Vedas. Vedic plots tried to reveal the boundaries of the world in which a person acts.

Based on the work of art, the picture of the world, the universe, became clear. 3 worlds - triloks: Agnu is the head of the family, Surya is the Sky and Indus is the air.

On the basis of these orthodox and unorthodox trends, the main philosophical systems of India were later formed and developed, among which, in particular, Vedanta, Nyaya Vaisesika, Samkhya, yoga, Buddhism, etc.

Man is a creation of the Gods. The first man is Purusha (son of the Sky God = Manu). Manu was credited with creating the first laws for humans.

Man, as a child of nature, is a unity of the natural, spiritual, and divine. The human self is body and soul. A person is elevated by the mind, knowledge, valued both in gods and in people.

Reflection on the content of Vedic hymns leads to the emergence of philosophy. Initially (IX-VI centuries BC) philosophy appeared in the form of "Upanshiads" (literally means "to sit around") - the transfer of knowledge from teacher to student. All deities are now presented only as manifestations (emanations) of a single god. Brahman-atman is both a deity and a certain single essence of the whole world. The Upanshiads have been recorded for centuries. The concept of some world regularity (dharma) was formed, as well as the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past deeds (karma). It also talks about how a person should live: mastering himself, his feelings, his body. One who has attained the Atman is free from passion, greed and other shortcomings, but possesses virtues.

"Manabharata" is a poem about war and the collision of 2 worlds, where the leader of the pandals (tribe) meets the chariot of his chariot (Vishnya). Krishna is the son of God, he is wise, he contributed to the victory.

The yoga principle means liberation from suffering.

Schools of Ancient Indian Philosophy:

Jainism;

Charvak;

Sankhya;

Vedanta.

In these schools, the doctrine of man is formulated. In Indian philosophy, man is at the center of philosophy. Indian philosophy - measure of order - Cosmos. It represents a spiritual origin, which can be called consciousness, spirit, which are discrete. Schools argued that nature is the original beginning, it is material.

The philosophy of ancient India posed the question: is there a beginning or not.

This leads to the VI century. BC. to the emergence of the first religious and philosophical doctrine - Buddhism (comes from Buddha - the son of the king of the Indian tribe Guatama). Buddha was supposed to live in the Palace. After leaving it, he met an old man, a cripple, a funeral procession. All this amazed him so much that Heaven was opened to him.

He highlighted the commandments:

Life is suffering;

The cause of suffering is life with its branches and desires;

Liberation from suffering - immersion in nirvana 9Complete liberation from your own self.

Further development of the philosophy of Buddhism leads to a logical conclusion - the doctrine of karma.

Karma - every living being contains it; she is his own cause, refuge; leads to bliss, a satisfying state.

The desires of a person determine the qualities of karma, constantly renew and support the process of reincarnation.

Karma is the essence of a person, that which catches up with him. Buddha says to live your life honestly and cleanly.

Features of Indian philosophy:

1. Indian philosophy is fundamentally not personified (there is not a single name). Refusal of priority, of your personal contribution - anonymity.

2. Philosophy is manifested, but it is not separated from religious practice. It is syncretic (connected with art, ethics).

3. Philosophy is directed inside the person. This is the philosophy of spiritual rebirth.

Philosophy of Dr. The East is an integral knowledge of nature, society, knowledge. Based on the mythological religious foundations of the ancient Eastern states.

The picture of the world is presented ambiguously religiously, but naturally scientifically. It is important that the focus of the sages in philosophy was man, as a part of nature.

The problem of the primary substance in ancient Greek philosophy: Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander, Heraclitus.

Ancient philosophy arose in the Greek city-states at the turn of the 7th - 6th centuries. BC NS. The social prerequisites that determined the specificity of the philosophy of Ancient Greece were: a high degree of social dynamism in comparison with the traditional societies of the East; a democratic form of government and trade and craft relations, which contributed to the transition of ancient Greek society to commodity-money economic relations.

Philosophy - as a science - as a system - as wisdom first appeared in Ancient Greece. Is it where philosophy is put? about the relationship between thinking and being, recognizability of the world (main - philosophy).

At the same time, man was at the center of Greek philosophy as the most important value. Man as a microcosm, where a huge amount of origin is concentrated. Man is least knowable.

The distinctive features of the philosophical thought of Ancient Greece were primarily ontologism and cosmologism. Ontologism consisted in a stable orientation of philosophical thinking towards comprehending the essence and structure of being as such, and also (in contrast to the mythological tradition) in the formation of a system of categories as logical means of cognizing being: "substance", "one-many", "being-nonexistence" and other Cosmologism (kosmos - organized world, loqos - doctrine), expressing a steady tendency towards demythologization of the world, consisted in the creation of a number of alternative models of the Cosmos as a structurally organized and ordered whole. In the early stages of the development of ancient philosophy, interest in the origin of the Cosmos, its genesis, prevailed. The classical period is characterized by the development of models of the cosmic process, in which the problems of its essence and structure are accentuated.

In the 6th century. D. n. NS. a classical society emerged on the territory of Asia Minor, the first schools, schools of thought, based on the principle of discussion clubs, appeared.

Ontology is the doctrine of being. On the? that there is being, physicists were the first to try to answer. Thales tried to answer this ?. In the 6th century. D. n. NS. had an idea of ​​why there are ebb and flow, what is a constellation, the sign of the number P.

What is the beginning interested many thinkers. In the center is a person - as a subject of knowledge.

Miletskaya School of Asia:

In the 6th century. D. n. NS. Thales substantiated water as a primary substance - from it everything arises and ends in nature;

Anaximander is based on ether. He knew the cause of earthquakes, the world arose out of chaos;

Anaximenes had air as a beginning.

These views were of a naive, natural - scientific nature.

Heraclitus of Ephesus, the father of dialectics, says that everything is based on fire - there is a primary substance, an eternal process. Everything that exists is movement. He wrote that space was, that it would forever be either a sunburning or a fading element. Fire should not be understood as flame. Heraclitus speaks of perpetual motion. Philosophers of later times believed that Heraclitus stood aside, did not see movement.

Heraclitus - everything flows, pantha rai. Movement of dialectics - movement, connection, development.

The primary substance is not what we see, not perceptible, not material. She's taller.

The world of Plato's ideas.

Plato (427 - 347 BC) - the largest philosopher of Ancient Greece, a student of Socrates, the founder of his own philosophical school - the Academy, the founder of the idealistic trend in philosophy. Plato is the first ancient Greek philosopher who left behind a number of fundamental philosophical works, the most important of which are "Apology of Socrates", "Parmelides", "Gorgias", "Phaedo", "State", "Laws". Most of Plato's works are written in the form of dialogues.

Plato is the founder of the idealistic trend in philosophy. Plato is the founder of idealism. The main provisions of his idealistic teaching are as follows:

Material things are changeable, impermanent and eventually cease to exist;

The surrounding world (the “world of things” is also temporary and changeable and in reality does not exist as an independent substance;

In reality, there are only pure (incorporeal) ideas (eidos);

Pure (incorporeal) ideas are true, eternal and permanent;

Any existing thing is just a material reflection of the original idea (eidos) of a given thing (for example, horses are born and die, but they are only the embodiment of the horse idea, which is eternal and unchanging, etc.);

The whole world is a reflection of pure ideas (eidos).

In the theory of knowledge, Plato is an agnostic, he denies knowledge of the essence of things, the sensible world. Knowledge is the memory of the soul. The soul recalls the world of ideas, where it stayed before the appearance of the real, sensual in the world. In this sense, his teaching echoes the teaching that the human soul is immortal.

Platonic world of ideas. Ideas are arranged in a pyramid. The foot is the ideas of things (the idea of ​​a cat, a tree, etc.). Further - the ideas of genera, classes of things. Above are the class classes. Etc. Above - three ideas: truth, goodness and beauty (proportionality). To combine them, the concept of "good" is introduced. Plato introduces the concept of matter as the beginning of nothingness. Matter is the beginning of chaos, disorder. The world of ideas is structural ordering. From matter, according to the world of ideas, the sensory world is built and ordered. Hypostases of the world of ideas: reason, pattern, purpose, concept (knowledge). (Russell: every cat is internally aimed to express the idea of ​​feline, but since it is made of perishable matter, it is doomed to perish.) Plato introduces an indefinite 3rd principle - the world soul. This is some kind of sculptor (god). Sculpting is based on geometric shapes (mathematics).

A person differs from other living beings in that he has a soul, whose individuality is an idea. (Before the birth of man, she existed in the world of ideas). This enables Plato to explain knowledge.

The historical significance of Plato's philosophy is that:

For the first time, a philosopher left a whole collection of fundamental works;

Idealism was initiated as a major philosophical trend (the so-called "line of Plato" is the opposite of the materialist "line of the Democrat");

The foundations of conceptual thinking were laid, an attempt was made to single out philosophical categories (being - becoming, eternal - temporary, resting - moving, indivisible - divisible, etc.);

A philosophical school (Academy) was created, which existed for about 1000 years, where many prominent followers of Plato (Aristotle and others) grew up.

Plato's Academy is a religious and philosophical school created by Plato in 387 in the nature of Athens and existed for about 1000 years (until 529 AD). The most famous pupils of the academy were: Aristotle (he studied with Plato, founded his own philosophical school - Lyceum), Xenocritus, Kraket, Arksila. Clitomachus of Carthage, Philo of Larissa (teacher of Cicero). The Academy was closed in 529 by the Byzantine emperor Justinian as a hotbed of paganism and "harmful" ideas, but in its history it managed to ensure that Platonism and Neoplatonism became the leading directions of European philosophy.

Philosophy of Democritus.

Democritus - (460 BC - 370 BC) - Ancient Greek materialist philosopher, one of the founders of atomism and materialism.

According to this teaching, everything that happens is the movement of atoms, which differ in shape and size, place and location, are in empty space in perpetual motion, and due to their connection and separation, things and worlds arise and come to destruction.

The world, according to Democritus, is based on two principles - atoms and emptiness. "Atomos" is translated from Greek as "indivisible". Democritus considered the atoms to be the smallest, indivisible particles that are worn in emptiness and differ from each other only in shape, size and position. Atoms are numerically infinite. Atoms are uncreate and indestructible. They are not perceived by the senses, they are intelligible. There is not an ounce of sensuality in atoms (no color, no smell). Their difference is quantitative, in extreme cases - geometric. Atoms differ from each other in shape, position and order.

Colliding and interlocking with each other, they form the bodies and things with which we deal in everyday life. The things around us, Democritus believed, we perceive with the help of the senses, while the atoms are comprehended by the mind.

The proof of the existence of emptiness in Democritus and the atomists in general boils down to the fact that, firstly, without emptiness, movement would not be possible, since the filled cannot perceive something else; secondly, its existence is evidenced by the presence of such processes as compaction and thickening, which are possible only if there are empty gaps between the bodies and their parts. Emptiness is absolutely homogeneous and can exist with or without bodies. Moreover, it exists both outside the bodies, containing them in itself, separating them from each other, and inside complex bodies, separating their parts from each other. Only atoms do not contain emptiness, which explains their absolute density - there is nowhere to insert a blade to cut an atom, or split it.

As for the number of atoms in the world, Democritus recognizes it as infinite. Consequently, emptiness must also be infinite, for finite space cannot accommodate an infinite number of atoms and an infinite number of worlds consisting of them. It is difficult to say what turns out to be the first assumption here - the infinity of the number of atoms or the infinity of emptiness. Both are based on the argument that both the number of atoms and the amount of emptiness are "no more than the other." This argument also extends to the number of forms of atoms, which, according to Democritus, is also infinite.

His teachings also illuminated the social world and history. He replied that society arose from nature. Culture arose as an imitation of nature. To create a society, people began to negotiate with each other, to establish a certain hierarchy. All people are by nature equal, except for enemies, must be brought up, educated.

The highest wisdom is philosophy, as a science, which gives people 3 gifts:

To speak well;

Think well;

It's good to act.

How to bring about the conjugation of being and non-being (feeling. Fixation of the world)? Democritus says that nothingness is emptiness, nothing. Atoms, being is +, non-being is (-). A polarity arises, which makes it possible to introduce motion: the atoms move into emptiness. By their movement, the atoms create groupings that a person perceives with his senses as things. That. being explains non-being, generates this non-being and explains it. The essence gives rise to the phenomenon. Being (the world of atoms) is a necessity; the world of things is the world of chance.

Randomness is something that we cannot know the essence of. A person cognizes at the level of his feelings (the beginning of the concept of sensationalism) - this is dark knowledge. From things flow out small objects that affect the senses. But dark knowledge is the knowledge of only the world of chance (that is, the world of non-being). Light cognition is cognition with the mind. The mind overcomes dark knowledge, starting from it for the knowledge of the world of atoms.

The subject here is a contemplator with dark and light cognition. He cognizes the cosmos that is outside of him (man himself is not included in this cosmos). If enabled, then only by reduction to this world. Essentially, Democritus provides a framework for constructing a scientific theory. The sensory world needs to be explained on the basis of some intelligible principles: in this case, atoms and voids. This theory lacks experiment.

The doctrine of Democritus was highly appreciated by his contemporaries and developed by Plato, Lucretius, and later by Lomonosov and Mendeleev.

Philosophy of Aristotle, its significance for European culture.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) - Ancient Greek philosopher of the classical period, a student of Plato, educator of Alexander the Great.

Considering the problem of being, Aristotle criticized Plato's philosophy, according to which, the world around was divided into the “world of things” and “the world of pure (incorporeal ideas), and the“ world of things ”as a whole, like each thing individually, was only a material reflection corresponding "pure idea".

Plato's mistake, according to Aristotle, is that he tore the "world of ideas" from the real world and considered "pure ideas" without any connection with the surrounding reality, which also has its own characteristics - length, rest, movement, etc.

Aristotle gives his own interpretation of this problem:

There are no "pure ideas" that are not related to the surrounding reality, the reflection of which are all things and objects of the material world;

There are only singular and concretely definite things;

These things are called individuals (translated as "indivisible"), that is, there is only a specific horse in a specific place, and not “The idea of ​​a chair”, a specific house with precisely defined parameters, and not the “idea of ​​a house”, etc .;

Individuals are the primary entity, and the species and genera of individuals (horses in general, houses in general, etc.) are secondary.

Since being is not “pure ideas” (“eidos”) and their material reflection (“things”), the question arises: what is being?

Aristotle tries to give an answer to this question (what is being) through statements about being, that is, through categories (translated from ancient Greek - statements).

Aristotle identifies 10 categories that answer the question posed (about being), and one of the categories says what being is, and 9 others give its characteristics. These categories are:

Essence (substance);

Quantity;

Quality;

Attitude;

Position;

State;

Action;

Suffering.

In other words, according to Aristotle, being is an entity (substance) with the properties of quantity, quality, place, time, relationship, position, state, action, suffering.

A person, as a rule, is able to perceive only the properties of being, but not the essence. Also, according to Aristotle, categories are the highest reflection and generalization of the surrounding reality, without which being itself is unthinkable.

Logos: essence = phenomenon; cause = effect; form = content; quantity = quality. All this constitutes thinking, which constitutes the Logos. Everything is in a chaotic state, order is called logic. Logos is thinking in concepts.

in this regard, he creates logic, considers it first-wisdom.

Cognition according to Aristotle is a product of sensory perception and rational thinking; in cognition, the subject perceives real things.

The most famous works of Aristotle include: "Organon", "Physics", "Mechanics", "Metaphysics", "On the Soul", "History of Animals", "Nicomachean Ethics", "Rhetoric", "Politics", "Athenian Polity" , "Poetics".

He was the first to formulate the philosophy of society. He talks about the laws descended from above.

The cycle of politics, where he formulated the idea of ​​differences in power. In Athens, laws and judicial power were separated.

Aristotle also formed a new modern European education system:

Skole (scholasticism0;

Gymnasium;

Academy.

This is a fairly large system, where talented students were selected, who passed through all levels.

Aristotle is the founder of logic; created an education system that existed in Europe until the 17th century; the founder of political science, formulated the principles of power, rule, described 156 states; formulated the foundations of ethics.

Philosophy of the Middle Ages in the system of Christian culture.

The Middle Ages is a period of European history, spanning the period from the 5th to the 15th centuries. Medieval thinking was essentially theocentric. The idea of ​​creation was the basis of medieval ontology, and the idea of ​​revelation was the foundation of the doctrine of knowledge. History was understood by medieval thinkers as the implementation of the plan of human salvation foreseen by God. The symbolism of medieval thinking, based primarily on Scripture and its interpretations, was carefully developed.

By the 11th century. NS. in the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the Christian Church was established, which eventually became the only state religion, which in turn exercised a monopoly on like-mindedness, spreading to the entire culture, science, philosophy. Science becomes completely the servant of theology. Any scientific discovery, thought must be consistent with the ideals of Christianity.

Medieval thinking and outlook determined two different traditions: Christian revelation, on the one hand, and ancient philosophy, on the other.

If the medieval worldview is theocentric. His dominant idea is the idea of ​​God. Not nature and space determine everything in the world, but the supernatural principle - God. Nature, man and society entirely depend on him. God is a person who exists above this world.

The peculiarity of the philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages was in its close connection with religion. Church dogma was the starting point and basis of philosophical thinking. The content of philosophical thought has acquired a religious form.

The idea of ​​the real existence of the supernatural principle (God) makes us look at the world, the meaning of history, human goals and values ​​from a special angle. The medieval world outlook is based on the idea of ​​creation. Christian philosophy seeks to comprehend the internal personal assessment mechanisms - conscience, religious motive, self-awareness. The orientation of a person's entire life towards the salvation of the soul is a new value preached by Christianity.

For the medieval thinker, the text of Holy Scripture becomes the starting point of theorizing. This text is the source of truth and the ultimate explanatory authority. The thinker sets his task not to analyze and criticize the text, but only to interpret it. The text, consecrated by tradition, in which not a word can be changed, arbitrarily rules the thought of the philosopher, sets its limit and measure.

The style of philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages is distinguished by the desire for impersonality. Many works of this era have come down to us anonymous. The medieval philosopher does not speak in his own name, he speaks in the name of "Christian philosophy".

In general, the philosophy of the Middle Ages substantiated the possibility of personal salvation, resurrection from the dead, the ultimate triumph of the truths of Christianity on a cosmic scale, was optimistic in spirit.

It was believed that the world was created by God not for the sake of man, but for the sake of the Word, the second Divine hypostasis, the embodiment of which on earth was Christ in the unity of the Divine and human nature.

Since the Word lay at the foundation of creation and, accordingly, was common to everything created, it predetermined the birth of the problem of universals.

The problem of universals is a dispute about the relationship between individual things and general concepts, a dispute about whether the objective content of general concepts exists or not, and if it does, then in what form. Universals characterize genera or species ("man", "animal", "fetus"). Two tendencies emerged in the dispute:

Realism (from Lat. Realis - real);

Nominalism (from Lat. Nomen - name, designation).

Extreme realists adhered to the Platonic doctrine of ideas, the essence of which is that the general (ideas) exist before and outside of individual things.

The extreme nominalists argued that universals do not exist in reality, but only in thought. Only a few things have real existence, and universals are the names of things.

According to Plato, the idea of ​​"stolnosti" existed before concrete tables and exists outside of them.

The main thesis of nominalism was formulated by the kinik Antisthenes, who, criticizing Plato's ideas, argued that they have no real existence and are only in the mind.

Scholasticism becomes the main methodological principle of education, which is based on the speculative logic of Aristotle.

The emergence of a different education system was based on Christianity. Scientists, future scientists, were educated at theological universities in Western Europe, and also studied in schools at monasteries and churches.

Specificity of the philosophy of monotheism. F. Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) - one of the most prominent representatives of mature scholasticism, a disciple of the famous medieval theologian Albert the Great. Like his teacher, Thomas tried to substantiate the basic principles of Christian theology, based on the teachings of Aristotle.

By being, Thomas means the Christian God who created the world, as it is described in the Old Testament.

He formulated a new Christian philosophy, according to which the whole world has a created character (creationism is the principle that underlies being, creation is creation, creation).

Its purpose is to establish the truth of the Christian religion by arguments addressed to the reader.

The individuality of a person is the personal unity of soul and body. The soul has the life-giving power of the human body. It is immaterial and self-existent: it is a substance that acquires its fullness only in unity with the body. Corporeality has an essential significance: it is through it that the soul can form what a person is. Thomas adhered to the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul.

The only creator is God the Father of knowledge - the manifestation of the divine in man, but knowledge of the world is not given to man. Knowledge is possible only through faith. Faith is knowledge.

A man in the Thomism system consists of 2 parts: a man and a beast, where man is from God, and the corporeal is from the animal. The meaning of life is asceticism.

Thomas Aquinas tries to prove that Holy Scripture is a science. He believes that it is possible, by examining the corporeal world, to logically prove the existence of God. He tried to scientifically prove the existence of God.

Proof in five ways:

1. Movement - comes to the root cause, which is immovable, but everything moves. If there is a world, then it has its beginning. If there is a beginning, then there is a creator. It can be over - force, over - push. Once formed, everything exists.

2. The primary producing cause is the uncreated substance to which everything corresponds. If there is movement, then it arose sometime. The living world grows and changes, seas are formed, everything in nature changes. Only the almighty can give movement. Only the Lord can do this.

3. If there is some beauty, then it changes. She can only be compared with the Almighty.

4. Degrees of perfection: there is some being who is the cause

goodness and all perfection - God. All that exists is created by God and does not have to have physical articles. It is about God the Father. Christ is the God-man, the son of the Lord, who came to Earth to show the power of creation.

5. All objects in nature obey some expediency, but it

obeys some higher goal - the goal of a higher being. This point of view bears a philosophical status, since it reflects a picture of the world based on the Christian mono-atheistic religion, where creationism plays an essential role.

The principle of harmony of faith and reason was embodied in the five rational proofs of the existence of God developed by F. Aquinas. Since everything moves and changes, there must also be a “prime mover,” a primary source, that is, God. The world is diverse and perfect, therefore there is God as the highest perfection. According to F. Aquinas, since there is a goal in the living world, there must also be a source of purposefulness, that is, God. Although there is randomness in the world, on the whole its development bears a natural character, which comes from God. The world is unique and finite in space, but there is orderliness everywhere in it, that is, God.

For a long time these proofs were perceived as convincing, despite their one-sidedness, since they are only evidence of an abstract-logical nature. However, the evidence cited by F. Aquinas is still actively used by the church.

Thomas Aquinas tries to rank everything in the world. God - angels - man -

living organisms are inorganic nature.

Another problem discussed in medieval philosophy was the problem of the relationship between general, abstract concepts and concrete concepts, reflecting individual things. In the course of its discussion, two directions were formed - realism and nominalism.

Nominalism (I. Roscellin, W. Ockham) believed that the general exists only in the human mind (there is a separate horse, but no "horseness"). By belittling the significance of general concepts, nominalism questioned the universal, extremely abstract concept of "God", for which it was persecuted by the church.

Realism (F. Aquinas), on the contrary, asserted the reality of general ideas, and considered individual things and their corresponding concepts to be derivatives of general ones.

The historical significance of the concept created by F. Aquinas is that it substantiated the idea of ​​a possible compromise between science and religion, which was further developed in a number of philosophical teachings, especially in the philosophical system of Hegel, Russian religious philosophy of the 19th-20th centuries, as well as in modern religious philosophy of neo-Thomism.

The philosophy of the Renaissance, its main features. N. Kuzansky, J. Bruno, G. Galilei, N. Copernicus.

The transitional era between the Middle Ages and the New Age (XIV-XVI centuries) is called the Renaissance (or Renaissance).

The philosophy of the Renaissance is a set of philosophical trends that arose and developed in Europe in the XIV-XVII centuries, which were united by an anti-church and anti-Scholastic orientation, an aspiration to a person, faith in his great physical and spiritual potential, a life-affirming and optimistic character.

The preconditions for the emergence of the philosophy and culture of the Renaissance were:

Improvement of tools of labor and production relations;

The crisis of feudalism;

Crafts and trade development;

Strengthening cities, turning them into trade and craft, military, cultural and political centers, independent of the feudal lords and the Church;

Strengthening, centralization of European states, strengthening of secular power;

The emergence of the first parliaments;

Lagging behind life, the crisis of the Church and scholastic (church) philosophy;

Raising the level of education in Europe as a whole;

Great geographical discoveries (Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan);

Scientific and technical discoveries (invention of gunpowder, firearms, machine tools, blast furnaces, microscope, telescope, book printing, discoveries in the field of medicine and astronomy, other scientific and technical achievements).

The characteristic features of the philosophy of the Renaissance include:

Anthropocentrism and humanism - the predominance of interest in a person, belief in his unlimited possibilities and dignity;

Opposition to the Church and church ideology (that is, the denial not of religion itself, God, but of an organization that has made itself a mediator between God and believers, as well as a frozen dogmatic philosophy serving the interests of the Church - scholasticism);

Shifting the main interest from the form of the idea to its content;

A fundamentally new, scientific and materialistic understanding of the surrounding world (sphericity, not the plane of the Earth, the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, and not vice versa, the infinity of the Universe, new anatomical knowledge, etc.);

Great interest in social problems, society and the state;

The triumph of individualism;

Widespread dissemination of the idea of ​​social equality.

Among the distinctive features of the philosophy of the Renaissance are anthropocentrism, humanism, antischolastic orientation, pantheism. The focus of attention during the Renaissance was man. For the philosophers of the Renaissance, he was primarily a creator, creating a new world, creating beauty, and finally - himself. The humanism of this historical era (the recognition of a person as a person, the assertion of his right to creativity, freedom and happiness) first appeared as an integral system of views. He opened a whole era of intense struggle between philosophy and scholasticism for a new style of philosophizing, reviving free dialogue, debate in the movement towards truth. In the Renaissance, philosophy again turns to the study of nature. The basis of her understanding was pantheism, which identified God and nature.

The main stages in the development of the philosophy of the Renaissance are humanistic, neoplatonic and natural philosophical. The humanistic tradition, the beginning of which dates back to the middle of the 14th century, contrasted medieval theocentrism with the deepest interest in man. Neoplatonic tradition, starting from the middle of the 15th century. connected with the formulation and development of mainly ontological problems, with the systematization and development of Plato's teachings. The natural philosophical tradition (2nd half of the 16th century - the beginning of the 17th century) was characterized by the desire to form a scientific worldview free from theology, to substantiate a materialistic view of the world, to find experimental methods for substantiating a new cosmology.

NIKOLAI KUZANSKY- philosopher, theologian and scientist of the early Renaissance; church leader. Nikolai Kuzansky was a prominent mathematician of his time. He made a significant contribution to the development of mathematics, in particular, to the solution of the question of squaring the circle, to the calculus of the infinitesimal. Nikolai Kuzansky emphasized the methodological significance of mathematics for the cognition of nature and proceeded from the need for the active use of quantitative characteristics (counting, measuring and weighing) in science, thereby acting as a forerunner of experimental natural science in modern times. When solving complex theological and philosophical questions, he used mathematical analogies.

The central problem of N. Kuzansky's philosophy is the problem of the relationship between God and the world. But unlike the tradition of medieval Catholic theology, he interpreted God as an endless single beginning and at the same time the hidden essence of everything, the world is presented as the world of finite things. Therefore, the problem of the relationship between the finite world, the world of finite things and their infinite essence is posed by N. Kuzansky as a philosophical problem. This problem was solved from a pantheistic standpoint: God, understood as embracing all that exists, contains the whole world.

Deep ideas were expressed by N. Kuzansky in the theory of knowledge. The main thing in his epistemology is the understanding of knowledge as an endless process, which is explained by the infinity of the world itself. If scholastics saw the goal of human cognition in the achievement of unchanging "divine truth", then N. Kuzansky understood the process of achieving truth as an endless movement towards it. Knowledge can never stop, truth is inexhaustible.

Affirming reason and intuition as the basis of cognition, N. Kuzansky opposed not only the scholastic theological tradition, but also the mysticism of medieval heresies, which denied the possibilities of the human mind in cognizing the world. A necessary condition for approaching the truth in the philosophy of N. Kuzansky is the way of mathematizing knowledge. In this, a deep thought about the need to mathematize the process of cognition found expression, which was of great importance for the creation of a new method of studying the world, opposite to scholastic knowledge.

Philosophical views of N. Kuzansky, including the dialectical content of his philosophy, were not immediately appreciated by his contemporaries. His ideas only in the XVI century. began to have a significant impact on the development of philosophical thought, primarily on the philosophy of Giorgiano Bruno. N. Kuzansky anticipated and prepared the Copernican revolution in astronomy, which eliminated the geocentrism of the picture of the world of Aristotle-Ptolemy.

He was fruitfully engaged in astronomy, his ideas prepared the teachings of Giordano Bruno about the infinity of the Universe, about the existence of many inhabited worlds. Nikolai Kuzansky rejected the foundations of the medieval worldview, according to which the universe is finite in space and the Earth is its center. He proposed a reform of the Julian calendar, which was carried out only after a century and a half, and made one of the first geographical maps of Central and Eastern Europe.

Pantheistic philosophy Bruno was the highest result of the development of philosophical thought of the Renaissance, since in it the main tendencies and features of the Renaissance were most deeply determined: humanism, spontaneous dialectics, recognition of the greatness of nature. Bruno's pantheism is the most radical and consistent of all natural philosophical systems of the Italian Renaissance, for in posing and solving the most important problems he went beyond his predecessors.

One of the main conclusions following from Bruno's pantheism is the assertion about the infinity of nature. If N. Kuzansky's doctrine of the infinity of the world was still semi-theological, then in Bruno it is formed as a doctrine only about nature. He developed an essentially materialistic concept of the universe. The universe is one, material, infinite and eternal. Countless worlds are outside our solar system. What we see in front of us is only an insignificant particle of the Universe. The Earth is a small speck of dust in the endless expanses of the universe. Bruno, therefore, in his cosmological theory went further than Copernicus, who considered the world to be finite, and represented the Sun as the absolute center of the Universe. Bruno denies the existence of such a center.

The materialistic worldview of Bruno, enclosed in a pantheistic shell, as the basis of all that exists, presupposes a single material principle with creative power. Unlike the scholastics and theologians, Bruno exalted nature, the material world, which generates countless forms of life from itself.

Nikolaj Kopernik is a Polish astronomer, mathematician and economist. Best known as the one who developed the heliocentric system of the world in the Middle Ages. He made a revolution in natural science, abandoning the doctrine of the central position of the Earth, accepted for many centuries. He explained the visible movements of the celestial bodies by the rotation of the Earth around the axis and the revolution of the planets (including the Earth) around the Sun. He expounded his teaching in the essay "On the Conversions of the Heavenly Spheres" (1543), prohibited by the Catholic Church from 1616 to 1828.

Galileo Galilei, famous Italian physicist, mechanic, astronomer, philosopher, philologist and poet. Galileo's name is associated with the heroic defense of the heliocentric system of the world and the tragic struggle against the Jesuits and the Inquisition. Galileo is one of the pillars of the scientific revolution of modern times.

In the systems of Mimamsa and Vedanta Vedic texts - sacred books like the Christian Bible are absolute authority.

Mimansa school

In the process of forming the Mimamsa system, two stages are distinguished: purva-mimansa(early, first form) and uttara-mimansa(late, last form). However, this definition is based not so much on a chronological sense as on a logical one. If for

the first central problem is ritual (sacrifice), then for the second - the knowledge of the truth of things.

A number of schools are also distinguished in the Mimansa system. The first school of Mimansa is associated with the name Jaimini(IV century BC), the second - with the name Kumarils, the third - with the name Murari.

As a philosophical view of the universe, Purva Mimamsa is imperfect. She does not pay special attention to the problem of primary substance (reality) and its relationship to the world of souls and matter. Her ethics are clearly eclectic, and her religion was overtly polytheistic. The central problem for purvamimamsa is the study of dharma or deeds of duty, of which sacrifices for a number of deities are considered to be the main ones.

The purva-mimamsa system does not go beyond the range of gods designated by it, for the observance of the Vedic drachma does not imply the admission of a higher power. Therefore, Jaimini does not so much deny God as simply bypasses the solution of this issue. Later mimansakas gradually drag God into their system. Thus, Kumarila, recognizing the need for karma (work) and upasana (worship) for real liberation, establishes the existence of God, who is dharma, or justice. The content of dharma is expressed in the Vedas, which reveal the mind of God.

The Vedic text in the purva-mimamsa system is the indisputable authority on the issue of fulfilling the religious duty (dharma). Fulfillment of duty leads to gradual redemption from karma and to real liberation as the end of rebirth and suffering. "Duty" has an external source, since the duties of a person are revealed to him by means of a force outside him. Therefore, the ethics of Purva Mimamsa is based on revelation. The precepts of the Vedas define the elements of dharma, which in general is a system of right life. An act prescribed by the Vedas will always be virtuous, and one based on natural instincts will not be virtuous.

Uttara-mimamsa, as a teaching that affirms the Vedic ritual, paid much attention to theories of knowledge and logic.

Knowledge is based on sensory perception object. Perception (pratyaksha) is direct realization (sakshat pratyih). It arises on the basis of sensory contact between subject and object. On the basis of the connection between the subject and the object of cognition, the process of cognition is built and the nature of consciousness is deduced, which is determined by the interaction of "I" and "not-I". Every act of knowing

presupposes a certain relationship between the subject ("I") and the object ("not-I"). Therefore, the cognized is not the quality of the object, but only the relationship that exists between the object and cognition.

Every act of cognition necessarily presupposes four basic structural elements: knowing(jnata ^ object of knowledge(jnea), means of knowledge(jnana-karana) and result of cognition, or awareness of the object (jatata).

The knowledge obtained in the process of cognition is in itself reliable, and its correctness can be refuted only if it is recognized that it is inconsistent. Correct cognition is such when it is free from contradictions and comprehends an object that has not yet been comprehended. Erroneous cognition is an incomplete perception of an object.

The mimamsa system proceeds from the fact that cognition is always the relation of thinking to reality. According to the Mimansaks, reality, the reality of the external world is the basis of experience and life. At the same time, they proceed from the fact that the external world is based on nine substances: earth, water, air, fire, time, space, akasha, mind and on "I". Later Kumarila added to this substantial series darkness and sound. Substances such as earth, water, air, fire are perceived objects and can be cognized. Other listed substances are not perceived, but only excreted. Supersensible objects cannot be perceived.

The question of the truth of knowledge is removed by the Mimansaks by introducing the theory of self-sufficiency of knowledge into epistemology. This theory substantiates the thesis that reliability is an attributive property of all knowledge, i.e. it is true in nature.

The theory of cognition of the Mimamsa system is based on the sensory form of cognition, logical inference, the provisions of the holy books and the postulates of some unperceived truths.

In general, the mimamsa system (the study of the Vedic text on sacrifices) concerns the explanation of the Vedic ritual. It is inherently the philosophical foundation of Hinduism. In philosophical terms, it is characterized by a realistic approach to solving the main issue of world outlook. Its importance for the Hindu religion can hardly be overestimated, for the sacred books, which determine the ethical norms of Indians, find their interpretation in the postulates and provisions of the mimamsa. Therefore, at the present time, modern Indian laws are largely influenced by the mimamsa system.

Philosophy is a force that significantly influences the progress of humanity. She is always a participant in the formation of certain social ideals and ideas about the integrity of the world. The very concept of philosophy and the first philosophical systems arose about five hundred years BC. In different places, philosophical concepts were formed, connecting both philosophy of India and religion.

Philosophy of ancient India

It has three periods. The first period is from the fifteenth to the fifth century BC. The second is from the fifth century BC to the tenth century AD and the third period is from the tenth century AD. The first period is called "Vedic", the second - "classical", the third - "industrial". The continuous development of Indian philosophy began with the oldest texts called the Vedas. They were written fifteen centuries before our era. The name itself comes from the word "to know" - to know. The Vedas are composed of four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. The most ancient Samhitas are a collection of four books of old "hymns". Of these: Rig Veda is the most ancient and revered Veda for comprehending the secrets of life, Samaveda is Vedic chants, Yajur Veda is a Veda for sacrifices, Atharva Veda is Vedic spells. The other three texts are an interpretation of the Samhita. Following the Vedic beliefs, God sees and knows everything and placed in the Vedas. Knowledge is of two types: sacred and profane. Each book of Samhita has corresponding brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads complement either Samhitas or Brahmanas. This philosophy seems complicated. And in order to understand her, one must remember the time at which she was born. The formation of a class society at that time, the existence of slavery, the growth of inequality in society led to the formation of castes. The caste of brahmanas (priests) - of the highest order, lived at the expense of other people. The kshatriyas were warriors and constantly fought with the brahmanas for power. Vaisyas and sudras are hard working people and pay tribute. And finally, slaves who were not part of any of the castes. All this diverse society had to coexist. And religion, as a social philosophy, had to create the rules of coexistence in a single state of India.

The oldest of the Vedas, the Rig Veda, helped the ancient Indians to comprehend the secrets of life. The main way of comprehending is the created myth. Cosmic phenomena underlie the comprehension of the world. The planets play the role of a deity in myths. The cyclical nature of nature is reflected in ritual cyclicality. There is no main god in the Veda. A person turns to the one of the gods who can help in this particular situation. The Upanishads were composed in different years, and are a secret teaching that is not available to everyone. The concept of "brahman" and "atman" in the Veda is the basis of being, the beginning of all that exists. Another interesting aspect of the Veda is the law of karma. He coordinates the process of reincarnation according to the good and evil deeds of a person. The Vedas assert that the future incarnation is not the result of God's desire, but the result of the life of the person himself (reward or punishment). Another key concept of the Vedas is moksha. This is the highest goal of man, which is to escape from the wheel of reincarnation.

India is a very colorful country, largely due to its rich flora, in more detail:.

Schools of Ancient Philosophy of India

The task of the philosophical schools of India is the process of cognition, that is, entering the world of ritual magic. For cognition of the divine principle, "turii" was used. These are mystical initiations carried out in schools. Among the philosophical schools in India, there were those who took the teachings of Vedism as a basis, and those who rejected Vedism. Let's get acquainted with some of them.

Sankhya

Translated as "number". Founded seven centuries BC. It is based on a student of the Vedas. Considers the world as a living being. Being represents Purusha, the endless cosmic "I" that does not change and testifies to everything. Purusha is not a body, not a soul, not a consciousness. Object of multiple cognition. In addition to the unknown, there is a material principle in teaching. This is Prakriti - primary matter, it is in eternity and constant activity. This is the cause of earthly phenomena, a consequence of the way of life. The actions of the Prakriti of those gunas: appearance, activity and inertia. These are not physical actions, but their consequences. In practice, the Huns are the strength of man.

India's main school. It is based on the Upanishads. Was the origin of the religion of Hinduism. Created in the Middle Ages. The main idea of ​​the school is the concept of Brahman as a multiple spiritual component. The reverse side of Brahman is space in conjunction with time. Through them he comes into the world. Brahman is at the beginning of the universe and at its end. The universe is just an illusion through ignorance of Brahman. Brahman is considered the highest spirit, it manifests itself in a person through atman. When a person transforms his inner essence into the state of Brahman-atman, he will receive pure consciousness - this is the main idea. Refusal of things, control over sensuality and mind, with a strong desire to be free, will lead to a state of nirvana. Will the learning process continue until you fully realize yourself as Brahman? which will lead to the liberation of the soul.

Read more about the beliefs of the Indians in the article:.

The teaching was founded by Prince Siddhartha half a century BC. Then they began to call him Buddha, which means enlightenment. This is one of the religions widespread all over the world, there is no concept of "God" and an immortal soul in it. According to the Buddha's teachings, the world is a stream of vibrating particles from existence. They are called dharmas. They are the energetic life stream of any manifestation of human feelings. The world is just an infinite number of dharmas. Our being is only moments. But every moment generates the next. The world is based on such a law. Buddha discarded questions about the processes of beginning and end and spoke only about dharma. The Teaching indicates the cause of suffering in not seeing the moment called "now". The teaching does not recognize an immortal soul. The basis of the teaching is the four truths. The Teaching defines eight steps on the path to nirvana. The state of nirvana unites absolute wisdom, virtue and equanimity.

Lokayata

The doctrine was founded by Brihanspati. The name translates as "to go from the world." Founded five hundred years BC. Does not accept Vedism and Brahmanism. Life on Earth was considered valuable. They did not recognize the supernatural. The teaching accepts only the material world. Things have their own nature and arise from it. The world is based on four elements: fire, air, water and earth, of which everything is composed. Think of the world as a random collection of elements. They do not recognize consciousness and personality outside the body. The soul is considered material. After death, there is no man, therefore there is nothing to suffer. In the doctrine, the complete denial of immortality. A person should be guided by two senses - kama (enjoy) and artha (have benefit). The meaning of life is seen in receiving pleasure and avoiding suffering.

Vaisesika-nyaya

The school originated five centuries BC. Her teaching combined the concepts of features and logic. It recognizes the four earthly elements, the space-time component and the ether, as the subtle matter of the soul and mind. The teaching believes that the whole world is a combination of these elements. For the first time, small internal elements "annu" (atoms) emerged as material carriers of everything. Since the particles of annu are not able to control themselves, there is a higher spirit Brahman for this. The teaching recognizes the law of karma. Over the centuries, this teaching was reborn into ancient philosophy.

Philosophy of India, video:

According to the traditional principles of classification adopted by most orthodox Indian thinkers, schools and systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad camps - orthodox (astika) and unorthodox (nastika). In modern Indian languages, the words "astika" ("astika") and "nastika" (" nastika ") denote theist and atheist, respectively. However, in the philosophical literature written in Sanskrit, the word "astika" denoted those "who believe in the authority of the Vedas," or those "who believe in life after death." ("Nastika" accordingly means the opposite.) These words are used here in the first sense. In the second sense, even such unorthodox schools as Buddhist and Jain will refer to astika, since their representatives believe in life after death. The six orthodox schools are astika, and the carvaka school is nastika in both senses of the word.

The first group includes six main philosophical systems: mimamsa, vedanta, sankhya, yoga, nyaya and vaisesika. They are considered orthodox not because they admit the existence of God, but because they accept the authority of the Vedas. So, for example, although the Mimamsa and Samkhya schools deny the existence of God as the creator of the world, they are still considered orthodox, since they recognize the authority of the Vedas. The six systems listed above are among the main orthodox systems. In addition to them, there are also less important orthodox schools, such as grammatical, medical and others, noted in the work of Madhavacarya.

Among the unorthodox systems are mainly three main schools - materialistic (such as Charvaka), Buddhist and Jain. They are called unorthodox because they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

To make this division more understandable, one should understand what place the Vedas occupy in the history of the development of Indian thought. The Vedas are the earliest works of Indian literature, and their influence has positively or negatively affected the entire subsequent development of Indian thought, especially philosophy. Some philosophical systems recognized the authority of the Vedas, while others denied it. The Mimamsa and Vedanta systems can, for example, be seen as a direct continuation of the Vedic tradition.

The traditions of the Vedas have two sides: ritual and speculative - karma and jnana. The mimamsa system, emphasizing the ritual side, in every possible way elevates the philosophy of the Vedas in order to justify the Vedic rituals and rituals and contribute to their cultivation. The Vedantic system, attaching exceptional importance to the speculative side of the Vedas, seeks to develop a carefully developed philosophy from the theoretical provisions of the Vedas. Since these schools were, in fact, the direct successors of the Vedic culture, both of them are sometimes called by the general word "mimamsa", and only for the sake of accuracy, one of them is called purva-mimamsa (or karma-mimamsa), and the other is called utra-mimamsa (or jnana-mimansa). However, the more common names of these schools are, respectively, "mimamsa" and "vedanta", so we will adhere to this very common name here.

Although the Samkhya, Yoga, Nyayas, and Vaisesikas schools based their theories on the basis of ordinary human experience and speculation, they at the same time did not challenge the authority of the Vedas and sought to show that the text of the Vedas is in full accordance with their own mind-based theories. The char-vaka schools, Buddhist and Jain, which arose mainly in opposition to the teachings of the Vedas, naturally rejected their authority.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site istina.rin.ru/

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient on the globe. It originated on the Indian subcontinent almost 6 millennia ago. In an attempt to comprehend themselves, the world around them and their place in it, the ancient Indian philosophers began to take the first steps in the development of worldview teachings. This is how the philosophy of Ancient India was born, which had a significant impact on the entire world culture.

general characteristics

Indian philosophy dates back to the middle of the first millennium BC. NS. Depending on the various sources of philosophical thought, ancient Indian philosophy is usually divided into three main stages:

• Vedic - the period of the orthodox philosophy of Hinduism (XV-VI centuries BC).
• Epic - the period of the creation of the famous epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", in which the global problems of philosophy of that time were considered, the entry into the arena of Buddhism and Jainism (VI-II centuries BC).
• The era of the sutras - the period of brief philosophical treatises, which describe individual problems (II century BC - VII century AD).

Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has developed continuously and naturally, without cardinal changes in ideas and points of view. All basic provisions are described in the Vedas dating from the XV century. BC NS. Almost all the literature that followed the Vedas is associated with their interpretation. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and included four parts: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

Rice. 1. Vedas.

The main provisions of the philosophy of Ancient India include:

• improving the inner world of a person;
• the desire to warn against mistakes that in the future may become the causes of suffering;
• sincere belief in the unchanging moral structure of the Universe;
• perception of the Universe as a fertile field for moral actions;
• ignorance is the source of all human suffering, while knowledge is a prerequisite for everyone's salvation;
• comprehension of knowledge through prolonged conscious immersion;
• the submission of weaknesses and passions to reason, which is the only way to salvation.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

In ancient India, philosophical schools were divided into two large groups: orthodox - those that developed on the basis of the teachings of the Vedas, and unorthodox.

Orthodox schools include:

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• Nyah - the very first orthodox school, according to which the world can be cognized by a person only with the help of his senses. This philosophical system is based on the study of metaphysical problems, not in a sensual, but in a logical way.
• Vaisesika - preached the eternal cycle of life, consisting of a chain of numerous transformations and the change of one body shell to another. This is the so-called samsara - the wheel of eternal reincarnation. As a result of reincarnation, the soul is in constant motion and the search for harmony and ideal.

Rice. 2. Wheel of Samsara.

• Yoga - a philosophy of a practical nature, aimed at knowing the world around and one's place in it. According to the provisions of this teachings, only a harmonious person is able to control his own body with the help of the strength of the spirit. The main task is the complete subordination of the body to the brain.

The emergence of unorthodox schools of thought is associated with the worship of materialism. It is based only on the body and its senses, but not on the ephemeral soul.
The unorthodox schools of ancient India include:

• Jainism - teaches that all creatures inhabiting the planet consist of the same atoms, and therefore are equal before the Universe. Harming a living is a terrible sin. It is incredibly difficult to attain enlightenment in Jainism. To do this, you need to completely replace the usual food with solar energy, never respond to evil with violence and not cause even the slightest harm to any living being.

The main goal of all the philosophical schools of Ancient India was to achieve nirvana - a state of complete harmony with the Universe, the loss of all earthly sensations, dissolution in the Cosmos.

• Buddhism - according to this philosophical teaching, the ultimate goal of every person's life should be the destruction of all earthly desires, which invariably lead to suffering. The most important principle of personality behavior is not to harm others.

Rice. 3. Buddha.

What have we learned?

While studying the topic "Philosophy of Ancient India" we learned briefly the most important thing about the philosophy of Ancient India: how it developed, what common features it had, what was its basis. We also got acquainted with the main orthodox and unorthodox schools of thought and their teachings.

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