Reforms 60 70 years of the 19th century results. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

BRIEFLY: Judicial reform. Since 1864, a new structure of courts (general and peace) and jury trials were introduced. The court became transparent, adversarial and independent. The equality of the estates was proclaimed before the court. Zemskaya reform (1864). Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government. They were elected on the basis of a property qualification for three curiae (groups of voters), headed by local leaders of the nobility and in charge of education, health care, and improvement in rural areas. Urban reform. In 1870, local government bodies were introduced in cities (city council and government). They were also selected on the basis of a property qualification and dealt with the same issues in cities as zemstvos in the countryside. A military reform was carried out. New military educational institutions were created, the army was rearmed. In 1874, general conscription was introduced instead of recruiting. The education system was reorganized. The autonomy of universities was introduced. Liberal reforms reduced Russia's lag behind Europe, leading it along the bourgeois path of development, but did not solve the main problem - the peasant one.

Zemskaya reform of 1864Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they said then) economy. Honey. there was practically no help in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the basic rules of hygiene. Public education could never get out of its embryonic state. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about the country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was depleted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved, It was established for the leadership of households. affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for the organization of food aid to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

Provincial and district zemstvo assemblies were the ordering bodies of the zemstvo, and the district and provincial zemstvo councils were executive bodies. To fulfill their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each county, for the election of members of the county zemstvo assembly created. three elect. Congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dess. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by those elected from the volost gatherings. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. The county zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo.

As a rule, nobles prevailed in the zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liber. landowners, the autocracy considered the local nobility its main support. Therefore, the zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Oblast, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of rural schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when the network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has developed, a "third element" has appeared, as the zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, statisticians began to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. The peasants trusted them, the councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched with dismay the growing influence of the “third element”.

City reform of 1870In 1870, according to the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out7 "0, which replaced the previous estate councils, created in accordance with the" Letter of Grant to the Cities "of 1785, with all-estate elected city institutions - city councils and city councils.

The right to vote in the City Duma was enjoyed by persons who have reached the age of 25 and who paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae... The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another third of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all the other taxpayers. Moreover, each curia elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the large financial and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.

City public self-government was in charge of the decision of households. issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activities of the city government were controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city council was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city government in each province, a special body was created - a provincial presence for city affairs. However, for all its limitations, urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban governance during the time of Ec II. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad strata of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of a civil society and a rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform of 1864The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform carried out on the basis of the new judicial statutes adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: formal equality of all estates before the law; publicity of the court; independence of judges; adversarial nature of the prosecution and defense; electivity of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial charters, two systems of courts were created - peace and general.

The magistrates' courts considered minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, and in capitals - by city councils. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established - not lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 dessiatines of land. At the same time, judges received a fairly high salary - from 2,200 to 9,000 rubles a year,

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers

The district court was appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. The consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. The jury could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 years with an impeccable personal characteristic, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A rather significant property qualification was also established - ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Jury Lists governor.

The Court of Appeal for the District Court was the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict passed by the jury was not allowed.

The Judicial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons who had a rank higher than a titular councilor (i.e., from the VIII class of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated to state. crimes and listened to with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the publicity of trials, which began to be conducted openly, the public was allowed to attend, and newspapers published reports on courts of public interest. The adversarial principle was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy arose in Russian society.

And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal remnants (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and high officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.

Political system

In the post-reform period, an absolute monarchy remains in Russia, the emperor

enjoys unlimited power.

The State Council remained the highest advisory body,

carried out consideration of bills and codification of laws. With him

various commissions and committees operated.

The Senate remained the highest judicial review body. On the eve of the reforms there was

the highest state body was established - the Council of Ministers, consisting of the chairman

State Council, members of the Committee of Ministers, chief executives.

It is chaired by the emperor.

In the structure of ministries and departments during this period there were serious

changes, some ministries formed their own local bodies new

ministries. During the period of the growing development of capitalism in Russia, the

the role and importance of government bodies such as the Ministry of State

property, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Railways.

The work of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of its local bodies was improved

Provincial administrations, provincial presences, district police departments, etc.

In the future, there is an increase in the repressive functions of the state apparatus, in

attitude primarily to political opponents of the regime. According to the law of 1871

political cases began to be removed from the jurisdiction of judicial investigators and transferred

gendarmerie. In 1882, a special law on police supervision was adopted.

In 1866-1867. in order to strengthen the autocratic power, power was sharply increased

governors. All local institutions and officials were now subordinate to them,

the right was granted to close zemstvo meetings in case of violation of the rules, and

zemstvos were forbidden to keep in touch with each other and publish without

the governor permits his decrees and reports.

The Ministry of Justice oversaw the country's judicial system,

the Minister of Justice was in charge of the selection of judicial personnel and performed supervisory functions.

Russia, aggravated by the defeat in the Crimean War, could be overcome

only by carrying out radical reforms, the main of which is the abolition of serfdom

law, which served as the main brake on the development of market relations in the country. 52

Alexander II, spoke in 1856 before the Moscow nobility, convinced them of

the need to abolish serfdom, indicating that it is better to destroy it from above,

rather than wait until it begins to be destroyed from below.

In 1857, the Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs was created, which

was subsequently transformed into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, supported by

in their work on the provincial noble committees, from which proposals and

reform projects.

During the preparation of the reform, there was a sharp struggle between various

groupings of the nobility, which were divided into liberals and conservatives.

Conservatives advocated the preservation of all land ownership in the hands of the landlords

and landless emancipation of the peasants, and the liberals for the emancipation of the peasants with the land

and vesting them with civil rights.

As a result, the prepared reform was of a compromise nature and was

aimed, on the one hand, at the preservation of landowners' land ownership, and on the other,

ensured in general the preservation of the peasants of their pre-reform land plots for

approved the "General Provisions on the Peasants Emerging from Serfdom." IN

compliance with the new laws the serfdom of landlords to peasants was canceled

forever, and the peasants were declared free villagers with the endowment of them

civil rights and freedoms - freedom of marriage, independent

conclusion of contracts, the right to go to court, do business and

trade, change of residence, transfer to another class, etc.

However, the reform did not equate the peasants with the landlords in their civil

rights. The peasants of each village who emerged from serfdom were united in

rural society. Several rural communities formed a volost. In villages and

the volosts were given self-government. Self-government body

rural society, there was a gathering at which the peasants chose rural

headman and tax collector. The self-government body of the parish was also a gathering, on

which elected the parish government headed by the parish headman and parish

judge to decide cases of minor misdemeanors and litigation of peasants.

The peasant was secured by the community and by mutual responsibility in the community. To leave

community could only be paid off half of the remaining debt and on the condition that

the other half will be paid by the community.

position, titles, ranks class organizations - provincial and district noble

assembly, political power and after the reform of 1861 remains in the hands of the nobility.

The abolition of serfdom required a radical renovation

the state apparatus of Russia in the direction of gradual reform

an absolute monarchy into a constitutional one. This led to the adoption of a number

state reforms, among which were:

Financial reform 1862-1868 Financial reform was previously

all in the centralization of the financial economy of Russia in the hands of the Minister of Finance and

financing all government spending through the Ministry of Finance.

The state budget was drawn up by the Ministry of Finance, and was considered and

approved by the State Council.

Old taxes - poll and wine ransom were replaced by land tax

and excise taxes (they were imposed on wine, tobacco, salt, sugar), which led to an increase in the revenue side

the state budget. At the same time, government spending also increased.

In 1860, the State Bank was created, as well as a network of commercial

banks. The redemption operations were carried out by peasants established for these purposes53

and noble banks. The State Bank was also entrusted with the function of

financing of commercial and industrial enterprises. There was a centralization of accounting

and control of state budget funds.

Military reform 1864-1874 The defeat in the Crimean War showed all

backwardness of the Russian military machine. The question arose about carrying out indigenous

transformations in the military sphere. In 1874, the "Charter on military

conscription ", which introduced universal military conscription for the entire male population.

Males who have reached the age of 20 were called up for military service according to

by lot. Those who did not get into the service were enlisted in the militia. Terms of service in the army -

six years with subsequent enrollment in the reserve for 9 years and in the navy, respectively, seven

years of service, 3 years in stock.

For those who graduated from higher education institutions, the service life was reduced to 6

months, gymnasiums - up to one and a half years, city schools - up to 3 years and elementary schools -

Officer cadres were trained in cadet schools, military gymnasiums and

military academies, preference in admission to them was given to the nobility.

The military reform was of progressive importance. She rid the population of

recruitment, accelerated the breakdown of the estate system, contributed to the development

railway network, since without railways it was not possible to carry out

broad mobilization of those transferred to the reserve.

Judicial Reform of 1864 The pre-reform judicial system was

archaic and confusing. Historically, there were estate courts for nobles, townspeople,

peasants, there were military, spiritual, commercial, boundary courts. Consideration

cases in the courts took place behind closed doors. Judicial functions were often performed

administrative bodies. In serf Russia, the trial and reprisals against serfs are often

the landowner himself ruled. With the fall of serfdom, judicial reform became

inevitable.

In 1864, the main acts of judicial reform were approved:

judicial rulings, the Charter of criminal proceedings, the Charter of civil

judicial Proceedings, Charter on Punishments Imposed by Justices of the Peace. In accordance with

these acts created two systems of courts - local and general. To local

were:

1. Justices of the Peace;

2. Congresses of justices of the peace.

Common courts included:

1. District courts for several counties;

2. Judicial chambers for civil and criminal cases, established in each

a county consisting of several provinces or regions;

3. Cassation Departments of the Senate.

The new judicial bodies were all-estates, i.e. they considered criminal and

civil affairs of all subjects of the empire, no matter what class they belong to.

The reform of the judicial system was based on new principles: equality of all

before law and court, separation of court from administration and administration of justice

only by court, the creation of an all-estate court, publicity of the trial,

adversarial nature of the parties, irremovability of judges and investigators, prosecutor's supervision,

election of justices of the peace and jurors.

In the course of judicial reform, new institutions such as electoral

magistrate court, institutes of judicial investigators, jurors, legal profession,

prosecutors with one or more comrades (deputies) have been established at the courts.

Judicial reform was the most radical of all in the country

bourgeois reforms. Thanks to her, Russian justice has become on a par with that of the most

advanced countries. As a result, there was a separation of the judiciary from other authorities,

preliminary investigation from the police and the court, the most democratic court was created

jurors.

The disadvantages of judicial reform include: limiting the role of the court

jury, lack of unity of the judicial system, non-admission of defense at the stage

preliminary investigation, etc.

During the police reform of 1862, the city and county police were

united into a single police system, including a police officer in the parish and

a police officer in the city, and at the district level - a police chief. In the provincial cities at the head

police was a police chief, who was subordinate to the governor, and supervised all

the country's police system is the Minister of Internal Affairs. In 1880, the police system

the provincial gendarme offices were included. Detective and

security departments.

Prison reform. In 1879, the management of the prison institutions was

assigned to the General Prison Administration. The situation of prisoners in some

relations improved and a health care system was established. However, to

prisoners could also apply special measures of punishment: corporal punishment,

placement in a punishment cell. Only in 1863 were corporal punishment for women abolished and

branding, but rods in places of deprivation of liberty were used up to the February

revolution of 1917. Various types of confinement were used - in a fortress, in

correctional house, arrest, punishment in the form of exile to Sakhalin. Served hard labor

transferred to the structure of exiled settlers.

Zemskaya reform. Zemstvos were created to manage the local economy,

trade, public education, medical care, public

Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, according to which

bodies of all-estate self-government - zemstvo assemblies. Elections of deputies to the zemstvo

the meeting was carried out in 3 curiae, were unequal and indirect:

1. Curia of county landowners with at least 200-800 acres of land (in

it was mainly a curia of landowners);

2. Urban curia, the participants of which had to have a high

property qualification, which cut off the poor. Workers and

artisans were also barred from elections.

3. The rural curia had a system of three-stage elections: peasants,

nominated for the volost gathering, sent their electors to the meeting,

which elected the deputies (vowels) of the zemstvo.

County and provincial zemstvo assemblies met annually for 2-3 weeks to

solving the tasks assigned to them - and this is the approval of estimates of expenses and income, elections

executive bodies.

Unlike zemstvo assemblies, zemstvo councils were permanent

bodies that were in charge of all zemstvo affairs. The establishment of zemstvos was large

a step forward in the democratization of the entire system of government in Russia, historically

short period of their existence, a huge work has been done to improve

welfare of the people, development of entrepreneurship, trade, education,

health care. Zemstvos educated a whole galaxy of liberal and

democratic direction that played a big role in all spheres of life

society.

The disadvantages of the reforms include its incompleteness - there was no lower

(volost) and higher (all-Russian) links of the zemstvo system. Guidance and control over

zemstvos were exercised by the nobility. Zemstvos were limited in material

funds, although they had the right to levy taxes and duties on the zemstvo

needs, and also did not have their own executive apparatus, which reduced their

efficiency and increased dependence on government agencies.

Urban reform. In 1870, the "City Statute" was approved, which

the system of all-estates self-government was extended to cities. Any

an urban inhabitant, regardless of class, had the right to vote at

election of deputies (vowels) under the following conditions:

1) Russian citizenship;

2) At least 25 years old;

3) Compliance with the property qualification;

4) Absence of arrears on city taxes.

Women participated in the elections through representatives. The vote was

secret. All voters, in accordance with the property qualification, elected a third

deputies to the city duma. Due to this, most of the vowels were chosen from

wealthy strata of the population.

The Duma and the Council were elected for 4 years. Half of the council had to be renewed

every two years. The Duma and the Council were headed by the same person - the mayor,

which was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. Activities

city \u200b\u200bauthorities was aimed at solving urban affairs, primarily in the field

city \u200b\u200bproperty and various fees, the development of culture, education,

health care, etc.

Thus, the institution of city government gave impetus to the development

russian cities, contributed to the formation of political social and

cultural organizations, the establishment of entrepreneurship and trade. Disadvantage

reform was that the city government was controlled and

obeyed the tsarist administration, their independence was strictly limited,

the material base is insufficient.

The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system determined in Russia the organization of the system of administration and judicial proceedings, the principles of manning the army, etc. The collapse of this system dictated the need for further reforms.

Zemsky and city reforms

The abolition of serfdom created many empty spaces in the previously existing system of local government. this latter was closely connected with serfdom. So, before, each landowner on his estate was for his peasants the personification of power. And in the district and provincial administration, most of the positions since the time of Catherine II were filled at the choice of the nobility and from among its representatives. After the abolition of serfdom, this entire system collapsed. The local economy was already extremely neglected. There was practically no medical assistance in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the basic rules of hygiene. Public education could never get out of its embryonic state. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about the country roads. Thus, it was necessary to urgently look for a way out of this intolerable situation, given that the state treasury was depleted and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public (especially from non-black earth provinces), which petitioned for the introduction of local all-estates self-government.

These ideas were expressed by N.A. Milyutin in a note addressed to the emperor. Once approved by the latter, they became the guiding principles of the reform. These principles were expressed in the formula: to give local government as much confidence as possible, as much independence as possible and as much as possible unity.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. Zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the district and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were uyezd and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were uyezd and provincial zemstvo councils. Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each uyezd, three electoral congresses (curia) were created for the election of members of the county zemstvo assembly. The first curia (private landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second (rural societies) - elected from volost gatherings. The third curia (city voters) included city owners with a certain property qualification. Each of the congresses elected a certain equal number of vowels (for a period of three years). The county zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

As a rule, nobles prevailed in the zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with the liberal landowners, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the heads of the district assemblies automatically (according to their position) became the district leaders of the nobility, and the provincial assemblies - the provincial leaders. Zemstvo was introduced only in 34 provinces of European Russia. He was not in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, because there were no landlords. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Oblast, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

The functions of the zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance of local roads, etc.), public education, medicine, statistics. However, they could deal with all these matters only within the boundaries of their district or province. Zemstvo people had no right not only to solve any problems of a national character, but even to put them up for discussion. Moreover, the provincial zemstvos were forbidden to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities even in such matters as the fight against hunger, epidemics, and the death of livestock.

Milyutin did not insist on expanding the competence of zemstvos, but believed that in their sphere of activity they should enjoy complete independence and independence from local administrative authorities, subordinate only to the Senate, and that governors should only be given the right to supervise the legality of their actions.

The disadvantages of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the local nobility, and the limited scope of activity. At the same time, this reform was of great importance. The very fact of the emergence in Russia of a system of self-government that was fundamentally different from the dominant bureaucratic system was important. The electiveness of the zemstvo bodies, their relative independence from bureaucratic structures made it possible to count on the fact that these bodies, with all their shortcomings, would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring them real benefits. On the whole, these hopes were justified. Soon after the creation of zemstvos, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now that the network of schools has expanded. hospitals and statistical bureaus, a "third element" appeared, as they began to call zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, statisticians. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. The peasants trusted them, the councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched with dismay the growing influence of the “third element”.

As soon as they were born, the zemstvos met an extremely hostile attitude towards themselves from all government bodies - central and local, soon lost a significant part of their already small powers, which led to the fact that many worthy leaders of the zemstvo movement grew cold towards him and left the zemstvo councils and meetings.

By law, zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But they soon began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually went to the zemstvo service. They became vowels of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of councils. They stood at the origins of the Zemstvo liberal movement. And the representatives of the “third element” were gravitating towards the left, democratic, currents of social thought. Hope arose in society for further steps in the radical reorganization of the state system in Russia. Liberal leaders, who heartily welcomed the reform, indulged themselves with the dream of "crowning the building" - the creation of an all-Russian representative body on the basis of a zemstvo, which would be an advance towards a constitutional monarchy. But the government took a completely different path. As it turned out later, in 1864 she gave the maximum self-government, which she considered possible. Government policy towards the zemstvo in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s was aimed at depriving him of any independence. The governors received the right to refuse to approve any person elected by the zemstvo; even greater rights were given to them in relation to "employees for hire" - zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians: at the slightest provocation they were not only expelled from the zemstvo, but also exiled outside the province. In addition, the governor became a censor of all printed publications zemstvos - reports, journals of meetings, statistical research.Central and local authorities deliberately stifled any initiative of zemstvos, radically suppressed any inclination to independent activity.In case of conflict situations, the government did not stop before the dissolution of zemstvo assemblies, the exile of their members and other punitive measures.

As a result, instead of moving forward towards representative government, the authorities stubbornly backed up, seeking to include the zemstvo bodies in the bureaucratic system. This fettered the activities of the zemstvos and undermined their authority. Nevertheless, the zemstvos managed to achieve serious success in their specific work, especially in the field of public education and medicine. But they were never destined to become full-fledged self-government bodies and serve as the basis for the construction of a constitutional system.

On similar grounds, in 1870, the City Regulation (the law on the reform of city government) was published. The issues of improvement (lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, arrangement of city passages, embankments, bridges, etc.), as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, care for the development of trade and industry were subject to the guardianship of city councils and administrations. Obligatory expenses for the maintenance of the fire brigade, police, prisons, barracks were assigned to the City Duma (these expenses absorbed from 20 to 60% of the city budget). The city status eliminated the estate principle in the formation of city self-government bodies, replacing it with a property qualification. The elections to the City Duma were attended by males who had reached the age of 25 in three electoral congresses (curiae) (small, medium and large taxpayers) with equal total amounts of city tax payments. Each curia elected 1/3 of the members of the City Duma vowels. Along with private individuals, departments, companies, monasteries, etc., which paid taxes to the city budget, received the right to vote. Workers who did not pay taxes to the city did not participate in the elections. The number of dumas was established taking into account the number of the population from 30 to 72 vowels, in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 250. The mayor, his comrade (deputy) and the council were elected by the duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. The body for supervising compliance with the rule of law in the activities of the city government was the Provincial City Office Presence (chaired by the governor).

Within the limits of their competence, the City Dumas enjoyed relative independence and independence. They carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos. This was due to the long-standing political inertia of the merchants and the entrepreneurial class.

Judicial reform

In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out, which radically transformed the structure of the Russian court and the entire process of legal proceedings. The previous courts existed without any significant changes since the time of Catherine II, although the need for judicial reform was recognized by Alexander I. The main vices of the old judicial system consisted of estates (for each estate its own court and its own laws), complete subordination of opportunities for abuse and lawlessness). The defendant was not always informed even of all the grounds on which the charges brought against him were based. The verdict was handed down on the basis of the totality of the system of formal evidence, and not on the inner conviction of the judge. The judges themselves often lacked not only legal education, but none at all.

It was possible to tackle the reform only after the abolition of serfdom, which forced to abandon the principle of estate and change the conservative Minister of Justice Gr. V.N. Panin. The author of the judicial reform was a longtime supporter of changes in this area, the State Secretary of the State Council (one of the few who spoke in the State Council in 1861 for approving the peasant reform) Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny. In 1862, the emperor approved the main provisions of the judicial reform developed by him: 1) the lack of class of the court, 2) the equality of all citizens before the law, 3) the complete independence of the court from the administration (which was guaranteed by the irremovability of judges), 4) careful selection of judicial personnel and their sufficient material support.

The old estate courts were abolished. Instead, a magistrate court and a crown court were created - two systems independent from each other, which were united only by submission to one supreme judicial body - the Senate. The magistrate court with a simplified procedure was introduced in the counties to deal with cases of minor offenses and civil cases with a minor claim (for the first time this category of cases was separated from the general mass). More serious cases were tried in the Crown Court, which had two instances: the District Court and the Trial Chamber. In the event of a violation of the legal order of legal proceedings, the decisions of these bodies could be appealed to the Senate.

The new ones differed from the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and the press. In addition, the court procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the charge was formulated, substantiated and supported by the prosecutor, and the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer from among the sworn lawyers. The prosecutor and the lawyer had to clarify all the circumstances of the case, interrogating witnesses, analyzing material evidence, etc. After hearing the pleadings, the jury (12 people), who were chosen by lot from representatives of all classes, passed their verdict on the case (“guilty”, “innocent”, “guilty, but deserves leniency”). On the basis of the verdict, the crown court (represented by the chairman and two members of the court) passed the verdict. Only in case of a clear violation of procedural norms (non-hearing by the court of one of the parties, failure to call witnesses, etc.), the parties could, by filing a cassation appeal, transfer the case (civil - from the judicial chamber, criminal - from the district court) to the Senate, which, in the event confirmation of violations, transferred the case without consideration to another court, or to the same, but in a different composition. A specific feature of the reform was that both the investigators who prepared the case for legal proceedings and the judges who directed the entire judicial procedure, although appointed by the government, were irreplaceable for the entire term of their powers. In other words, as a result of the reform, it was intended to create a court as independent as possible and to protect it from outside influences, primarily from pressure from the administration. At the same time, cases of state and certain judicial crimes, as well as cases of the press, were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury.

The Magistrate's Court, whose task was to provide the Russian people with a "quick, right and merciful" court, consisted of one person. The magistrate was elected by zemstvo assemblies or city councils for three years. The government could not, by its own power, remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district crown court). The task of the magistrate's court was to reconcile the guilty, and if the parties did not want to, the judge was given considerable scope in sentencing - depending not on any external formal data, but on his inner conviction. The introduction of magistrates' courts significantly relieved the crown courts from the mass of small cases.

Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained incomplete. For the analysis of conflicts in the peasant environment, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. A magistrate with the Code of Laws would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, which consisted of peasants, judged on the basis of customs existing in the area. But he was too susceptible to the influence of the wealthy elite of the village and all kinds of bosses. The rural municipality court and the conciliator had the right to order corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904. There was a separate ecclesiastical court for the clergy (for specifically ecclesiastical affairs).

In addition, soon after the start of the implementation of the judicial reform, largely under the influence of the unprecedented scale of terrorism, the authorities began to subordinate the courts to the dominant bureaucratic system. In the second half of the 1860s - 1870s, the publicity of court sessions and their coverage in the press was significantly limited; the dependence of judicial officials on the local administration increased: they were ordered to unquestioningly “obey the legal requirements of the provincial authorities.” The principle of irremovability was also undermined: instead of investigators, “acting” investigators were increasingly appointed to whom the principle of irremovability did not apply. Investigation into these cases was started not by investigators, but by gendarmes; legal proceedings were carried out not by jury trials, but specially for this purpose created by the Special Presence of the Governing Senate.Since the late 1870s, a significant part of political cases began to be considered by military courts.

And yet, one can admit without hesitation that judicial reform was the most radical and consistent of all the Great Reforms of the 1860s.

Military reforms

In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin was appointed Minister of War. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he spent in the 1860s - I half. 1870s a series of military reforms. One of the main tasks of the military reforms was to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and to create the opportunity for a significant increase in it in wartime. This was achieved by reducing the non-combat element (non-combatant, local and auxiliary troops) and the introduction in 1874 (under the influence of the successful actions of the Prussian army in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871) of universal military service, replacing the pre-reform recruitment. Compulsory military service extended to the entire male population, aged 21-40, without distinction of class. For the ground forces, a 6-year active service period and a 9-year reserve period were established; for the fleet - 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve. Then those liable for military service were transferred as warriors to the State Militia, where those who were released from the draft were enrolled. In peacetime, no more than 25 - 30% of the total number of conscripts were taken on active service. A significant part of the conscripts were exempted from service for family benefits (the only son with parents, the only breadwinner in the family, etc.), for physical unsuitability, for occupation (doctors, veterinarians, pharmacists, educators and teachers); the rest drew lots. Representatives of the peoples of the North and Central Asia, some peoples of the Caucasus, the Urals and Siberia (Muslims) were not subject to conscription. Cossacks underwent military service under special conditions. Service terms were shortened depending on education. If the educated person entered active service voluntarily (as a volunteer), then the service life was further reduced by half. Under this condition, conscripts with secondary education served only seven months, and higher - three. These benefits have become an additional incentive for the spread of education. In the course of the Milyutin reforms, the conditions of service for the lower ranks (soldiers) were significantly changed: corporal punishment was abolished (punishment with rods was left only for the category of “fines”); improved food, uniforms and barracks; strict measures were taken to stop the beating of soldiers; introduced systematic literacy training for soldiers (in company schools). The abolition of recruitment, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.

Simultaneously, a harmonious, strictly centralized structure was created to streamline the system of military command. In 1862 - 1864. Russia was divided into 15 military districts directly subordinate to the War Ministry. In 1865, the General Staff was established - the central body for command and control of troops. Reforms in the field of military education were also of serious importance: instead of closed cadet corps, military gymnasiums were established, close in curriculum to a secondary school (gymnasium) and opened the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wished to continue their military education entered the schools established in the 1860s. specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering. An important feature of these schools was their all-class system, which opened access to the officer corps to persons of non-noble origin. Higher military education was given by the academy - the General Staff. artillery, military medical, naval, and others. Rearmament of the army was carried out (the first rifled breech-loading guns, Berdan rifles, etc.).

Military reforms met with strong opposition from the conservative circles of the generals and society; the main opponent of the reforms was Field Marshal Prince. A.I. Baryatinsky. Military "authorities" criticized the reforms for their bureaucratic nature, diminishing the role of command personnel, and overthrowing the age-old foundations of the Russian army.

Results and significance of the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s

The reforms of the 60-70s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern self-government bodies and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civic consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and an improvement in the quality of life. Russia was involved in the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the initiative of the population and its expression of will. But these were only the first steps. Remnants of serfdom were strong in local government, and many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 60s and 70s did not affect the upper echelons of power. The autocracy and police system inherited from past eras were preserved.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.

Description of the presentation Liberal reforms of the 60s-70s of the 19th century on slides

Study plan for the topic 1. Reasons for the reforms of the 60–70s. XIX century. 2. Reforms of local government. a) Zemskaya reform b) City reform 3. Judicial reform. 4. Reforms of the education system. a) School reform. b) University reform 5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 - 1864)

* Historians of the XIX - early XX century. assessed these reforms as great (K. D. Kavelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. A. Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians considered them incomplete and half-hearted (M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P. Volobuev).

Title The content of the reform Their significance Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 -1864)

6 Peasant Reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861 Results of the peasant reform Opened the way to the development of bourgeois relations in Russia Wore an unfinished character, gave rise to social antagonisms (contradictions) "Will" without land

Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) A turning point, the line between feudalism and capitalism. Created conditions for the establishment of the capitalist order as the dominant one. Preserved survivals of serfdom; the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, had to pay a ransom, and lost part of the land (pieces of land).

Reform of local self-government In 1864, the "Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions" were introduced. In counties and provinces, local government bodies were created - zemstvos.

9 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial). "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" and uyezd zemstvo institutions "The content of the reform Creation of provincial and uyezd zemstvos - elected bodies of local self-government in rural areas Zemstvo functions Maintenance of local schools, hospitals; construction of local roads; organization of agricultural statistics, etc.

11 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). "Regulations on provincial" Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions "and uyezd zemstvo institutions" The structure of zemstvo institutions Zemsky government is an executive body and was elected for 3 years. on a census basis on a class basis, collected annually

Zemskaya reform Representatives of all estates worked together in the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies (boards). But the leading role was still played by the nobles, who looked down on the "muzhik" vowels. And the peasants often regarded participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and voted for the debtors. Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

Curies are the categories into which voters were divided according to property and social characteristics in pre-revolutionary Russia during elections.

Zemskaya reform 1 vowel (deputy) for the landowning and peasant curiae was elected from every 3 thousand peasant allotments. For the city curia - from the owners of property equal in value to the same amount of land. How many voices of the peasants were equal to the voice of a landowner with 800 dessiatines. , if the shower allotment was 4 dess. ? In this case, 1 vote of the landowner \u003d 200 votes of the peasants. Why was it not ensured equal suffrage for peasants, townspeople and landowners when creating zemstvo bodies? Because in this case, the educated minority would "drown" in the illiterate dark peasant mass. ?

Zemsky reform Zemsky assemblies met once a year: county assemblies for 10 days, provincial assemblies for 20 days. Estates of the Zemsky Assembly? Why was the proportion of peasants among the provincial vowels noticeably lower than among the uyezd ones? Noblemen Merchants Peasants Others County zemstvo 41, 7 10, 4 38, 4 9, 5 Provincial zemstvo 74, 2 10, 9 10, 6 4, 3 The peasants were not ready to deal with provincial affairs that were far from their daily needs. And it was far and expensive to get to the provincial town.

Zemsky reform Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in individual sectors of the economy - teachers, doctors, agronomists - zemstvo employees were introduced at the level of counties and provinces. Zemstvoes decide not only local economic affairs, but are also actively involved in political struggle

Your comments. Zemstvos. The Moscow nobleman Kireev wrote about the zemstvos: “We, nobles, are vowels; merchants, philistines, clergy - agreeable, peasants - voiceless. " Explain what the author wanted to say?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvos dealt exclusively with economic issues: building roads, fighting fires, agronomic assistance to peasants, creating food supplies in case of crop failure, maintaining schools and hospitals. For this, zemstvo taxes were collected. Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. 1865? What groups are the zemstvo vowels divided into in K. Trutovsky's drawing?

Thanks to the zemstvo doctors, the villagers for the first time received qualified medical care. The zemstvo doctor was a universal: therapist, surgeon, dentist, obstetrician. Sometimes operations had to be done in a peasant hut. Off-road in the Tver province. Zemsky doctor. Hood. I. I. Tvorozhnikov.

Zemskaya reform Teachers played a special role among zemstvo officials. What do you think this role was? Zemsky teacher not only taught children arithmetic and literacy, but was often the only literate person in the village. Arrival of the teacher to the village. Hood. A. Stepanov. ? Thanks to this, the teacher became a bearer of knowledge and new ideas for the peasants. It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many liberal and democratically inclined people.

Zemskaya reform In 1865-1880 in Russia there were 12 thousand rural zemstvo schools, and in 1913 - 28 thousand zemstvo teachers taught literacy to over 2 million peasant children, including girls. True, elementary education never became compulsory. The training programs were developed by the Ministry of Education. Lesson at the zemstvo school of the Penza province. 1890s ? What, judging by the photograph, distinguished the zemstvo school from the state or parish school?

23 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). "Regulations on the provincial" Regulations on the provincial and district zemstvo institutions "and uyezd zemstvo institutions" Significance contributed to the development of education, health care, local improvement; became centers of the liberal social movement Limitations were introduced initially in 35 provinces (by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces) volost zemstvos were not created they acted under the control of the administration (governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)

Zemskaya (1864) The most energetic, democratic intelligentsia was grouped around the zemstvos. The activity was aimed at improving the situation of the masses. The class of elections; limited range of issues solved by zemstvos. Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings

Preparations for the city reform began in 1862, but due to the assassination attempt on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed. The city status was adopted in 1870. The City Duma remained the supreme body of city self-government. The elections were held for three curiae. The curiae were formed on the basis of a property qualification. A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of city taxes they paid. Each curia paid 1/3 of taxes. The first curia was the richest and smallest, the third was the poorest and most numerous. ? What do you think: were the city elections held on an all-estates or non-estates basis?

City reform City government: Voters of the 1st Curia Voters of the 2nd Curia Voters of the 3rd Curia. City Council (administrative body) City government (executive body) elects the Mayor

City reform The head of the city government was the elected mayor. In large cities, a nobleman or a wealthy guild merchant was usually chosen as the mayor. Like zemstvos, city councils and councils were in charge of exclusively local improvement: paving and lighting streets, maintaining hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and city schools, care for trade and industry, water supply and urban transport. Samara mayor P. V. Alabin.

28 City reform 1870 - - “City status” “City status” Essence Creation of bodies in cities similar to zemstvos in functions and structure City mayor was in charge City government was elected City Duma was elected as part of vowels by the population on a non-qualifying basis

City (1870) contributed to the involvement of broad strata of the population in government, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of a civil society and the rule of law in Russia. The activities of the city government were controlled by the state. Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings

Judicial reform - 1864 Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Principles of legal proceedings Inequality - the court's decision does not depend on the estate of the accused Election - the magistrate and jury Glasnost - the public could be present at the court sessions, the press could report on the progress of the trial Independence - the administration could not influence judges Competitiveness - participation of the prosecutor in the trial (prosecution) and lawyer (defense)

33 Judicial Reform of 1864 Judge appointed by the Ministry of Justice (principle of the irremovability of judges) Sentences in accordance with the law on the basis of a jury's verdict Basis of reform Judicial Statutes Introduction of a jury

34 Judicial reform of 1864. Jurors are selected from representatives of all estates (!) On the basis of property qualification 12 people Pass a verdict (decision) on the guilt, its degree or innocence of the defendant

Judicial Reform Judges received high salaries. The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by the jury after hearing witnesses and debates by the prosecutor and lawyer. A juror could be a Russian citizen from 25 to 70 years old (qualifications - property and residence). The court decision could be appealed.

36 Judicial reform of 1864 Additional elements of the implementation of judicial reform: Special courts for military personnel Special courts for clergymen Magistrates' courts to hear minor civil and criminal offenses

37 Judicial reform of 1864 The structure of the judiciary in Russia The Senate is the highest judicial and cassation (cassation - appeal, protest against the judgment of a lower court) body Judicial chambers courts for considering the most important cases and appeals (complaint, appeal for reconsideration of the case) against decisions of district courts District Courts First Instance Courts. Handles complex criminal and civil cases Lawyer Prosecutor Magistrates' courts minor criminal and civil cases 12 jurors (qualification)

Judicial reform Minor offenses and civil litigation (the amount of the claim up to 500 rubles) were examined by the magistrate's court. The magistrate decided cases on his own, could sentence to a fine (up to 300 rubles), arrest for up to 3 months or imprisonment for up to 1 year. Such a trial was simple, quick, and cheap. World judge. Modern drawing.

Judicial reform The magistrate was elected by zemstvos or city councils from among persons over 25 years old, with at least secondary education, and judicial experience of three years or more. The magistrate was supposed to own real estate for 15 thousand rubles. It was possible to appeal against the decisions of the magistrate at the county congress of justices of the peace. District Congress of Justices of the Peace of the Chelyabinsk District.

Judicial reform Public participation: 12 lay jurors participated in the trial. The jury passed the verdict: "guilty"; "Guilty, but deserves leniency"; "Innocent." Based on the verdict, the judge passed the verdict. Modern drawing.

Judicial reform Jurors were elected by provincial zemstvo assemblies and city councils on the basis of property qualifications, without regard to class affiliation. Jurors. Drawing of the early twentieth century. ? What can be said about the composition of the jury judging by this figure?

Judicial reform Adversarial: In criminal proceedings, the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense of the accused was carried out by a lawyer (attorney at law). In a jury trial, where the verdict did not depend on professional lawyers, the role of the lawyer was enormous. The largest Russian lawyers: K. K. Arseniev, N. P. Karabchevsky, A. F. Koni, F. N. Plevako, V. D. Spasovich. Fyodor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842–1908) appears in court.

Judicial reform Glasnost: The public began to be allowed into court sessions. The court reports were published in the press. Special court reporters appeared in the newspapers. Lawyer V. D. Spasovich: “We are, to a certain extent, knights of the word of the living, free, freer now than in the press, which the most zealous ferocious chairmen will not calm down, because while the chairman thinks about stopping you, the word has already skipped three miles and cannot be returned. " Portrait of the lawyer Vladimir Danilovich Spasovich. Hood. I. E. Repin. 1891.

44 Judicial Reform of 1864 Significance of Judicial Reform The most advanced judicial system in the then world was created. A big step in the development of the principle of "separation of powers" and democracy The preservation of elements of bureaucratic arbitrariness: administrative punishment, etc., preserved a number of vestiges of the past: special courts.

45 Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century. Military reform of the 60s - 70s XIXXIX century Immediate impetus - the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Areas of military reform Result - a massive modern army

Military reform The first step in military reform was the abolition of military settlements in 1855. In 1861, on the initiative of the new Minister of War, D.A.Milyutin, the service life was reduced from 25 to 16 years. In 1863 corporal punishment was abolished in the army. In 1867, a new military-judicial charter was introduced, based on the general principles of judicial reform (publicity, competition). Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War 1861–1881

Military reform In 1863, a reform of military education was carried out: the cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. Military gymnasiums provided a broad general education (Russian and foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural science, history). The training load has doubled, but physical and general military training has been reduced. Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War 1861–1881

1) Creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval Academy (1877)

According to the new regulations, the task was set to teach the troops only what is necessary in the war (shooting, loose formation, sapper), the time for drill training was reduced, corporal punishment was prohibited.

Military reform Which measure was to be the main one in the course of military reform? Cancellation of recruitment. What were the disadvantages of the recruiting system? The inability to quickly increase the army in wartime, the need to maintain a large army in peacetime. The recruitment was suitable for serfs, but not for free people. Non-commissioned officer of the Russian army. Hood. V.D. Polenov. Fragment. ? ?

Military reform What could replace the recruiting system? General military service. The introduction of universal military service in Russia, with its vast territory, required the development of the road network. It was only in 1870 that a commission was created to discuss this issue, and on January 1, 1874, the Manifesto was published on the replacement of conscription by universal military service. Sergeant-Major of the Dragoon Regiment. 1886?

Military reform All men aged 21 were subject to conscription. The service life was 6 years in the army and 7 years in the navy. The only breadwinners and only sons were released from the draft. What principle was taken as the basis of the military reform: all-estates or non-estates? Formally, the reform was non-class, but in fact, the estate was largely preserved. "Lagged behind." Hood. P.O.Kovalevsky. Russian soldier of the 1870s in full marching gear. ?

Military reform In what way were the remnants of the estate in the Russian army manifested after 1874? The fact that the officer corps remained mainly of the nobility, the rank and file - peasant. Portrait of Count G. Bobrinsky, lieutenant of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. Hood. K. E. Makovsky. Drummer of the Pavlovsky Life Guards Regiment. Hood. A. Detail. ?

Military reform During the implementation of military reform, benefits were established for recruits with secondary or higher education. Those who graduated from the gymnasium served 2 years, those who graduated from the university - 6 months. In addition to the reduced service life, they had the right to live not in the barracks, but in private apartments. Volunteer of the 6th Klyastitsky Hussar Regiment

Smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced by steel ones, the rifle of H. Berdan (Berdank) was adopted by the Russian army, and the construction of a steam fleet began.

Military reform In which social groups do you think the military reform caused discontent and what were its motives? The conservative nobility was dissatisfied with the fact that people from other classes were given the opportunity to become officers. Some nobles were outraged that they could be called up as soldiers along with the peasants. Particularly dissatisfied were the merchants, who were not previously subject to recruitment. The merchants even offered to take over the maintenance of the disabled if they were allowed to pay off the draft. ?

59 Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIXXIX century The most important element of the reform is the replacement of the system of recruitment kits with universal military service. Compulsory military service for men of all classes from the age of 20 (6 years - in the army, 7 years - in the navy) with subsequent stay in the reserve. Benefits were provided for persons with higher and secondary education (the rights of volunteers), clerics and some other categories of the population were freed Significance of the creation of massive combat-ready armed forces; increasing the country's defense

The meaning of the reform: the creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the estate system. Disadvantages of the reform: miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. Military reform of 1874

62 Education reforms. Educational reforms School reform of 1864 Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education Public schools County 3 years of study Parish parish schools since 1884 3 years of study Progymnasiums 4 years of study City 6 years of study Primary education

School Reform (Secondary Education) Classical and real grammar schools were intended for the children of the nobility and merchants. "Charter of grammar schools and progymnasiums" November 19, 1864 Progymnasium. The term of study is 4 years. The classical gymnasium is 7-grade, the period of study is 7 years. The real gymnasium is 7-grade. The period of study is 7 years. Ancient and foreign languages, ancient history, antique literature prevailed in the program of classical gymnasiums. Mathematics, physics and other technical subjects prevailed in the curriculum of real grammar schools. Prepared for admission to the gymnasium. They were located in district towns.

School reform In 1872, the period of study in classical gymnasiums was increased to 8 years (the 7th grade became two years), and from 1875 they officially became 8th grade. Real gymnasiums retained the 7-year term of study and in 1872 they were transformed into real schools. If graduates of classical grammar schools entered universities without exams, then realists had to take exams in ancient languages. Without exams, they entered only technical universities. What caused such restrictions for graduates of real schools? In classical grammar schools, children of noblemen studied more often, in real ones - children of merchants and commoners. ?

The university reform was the first after the abolition of serfdom, which was caused by student unrest. The new university charter to replace the Nikolaev charter of 1835 was adopted on June 18, 1863. Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin became the initiator of the new charter. The universities were given autonomy. Councils of universities and faculties were created, which elected the rector and deans, awarded academic titles, distributed funds among departments and faculties. Andrei Vasilievich Golovnin (1821-1886), Minister of Education in 1861-1866

University reform Universities had their own censorship and received foreign literature without customs inspection. The universities operated their own courts and guards; the police did not have access to the university grounds. Golovnin proposed creating student organizations and attracting them to participate in university self-government, but the State Council rejected this proposal. Andrei Vasilievich Golovnin (1821-1886), Minister of Education in 1861-1866 ? Why was this proposal removed from the statutes of the universities?

Classic. Reform in the field of public education Changes in the education system University charter 1863 School charter 1864 Autonomy Gymnasiums Real Prepared for university entrance Prepared for admission to higher technical educational institutions. The university council was created, which decided all internal issues Election of the rector and teachers The restrictions for students were removed (their misconduct was considered by the student court)

Women's education In the 60s – 70s. female higher education appeared in Russia. Women were not admitted to universities, but in 1869 the first Higher Courses for Women were opened. The most famous were the courses opened by V.I.Ger'e in Moscow (1872) and K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin in St. Petersburg (1878). In Ger'e's courses there was only the Faculty of History and Literature. Bestuzhev's courses include mathematical and verbal history departments. Two-thirds of the students studied math. The student. Hood. N. A. Yaroshenko.

Reforms in the field of education (1863 -1864) Significance of reforms: expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Disadvantages of reforms: inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population.

Judicial (1864) The most advanced judicial system in the world of that time. She kept a number of vestiges: special courts. Military (1874) Creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. In the field of education (1863 -186 4 years.) Expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population. Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings

71 The results and significance of the reforms They led to a significant acceleration of the country's development and brought Russia closer to the level of the world's leading powers. They were incomplete and incomplete. In the 80s, replaced by the counter-reforms of Alexander III

The significance of the reforms Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. The advancement of the country along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transforming the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one and the development of democracy The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law Reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, peacefully

Summing up What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 60s – 70s? ? Thanks to the reforms of the 60s-70s. many issues of everyday life were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy to the jurisdiction of society, represented by zemstvos and city councils; the equality of Russian subjects before the law has been established; the level of literacy of the population has significantly increased; universities have received a greater degree of freedom of scientific and educational activities; censorship for the central press and publishing has softened; the army began to be built on the basis of unescribed universal military service, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and made it possible to create prepared reserves. ?

Topic study plan

1. Reasons for the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century.
2. Reforms of local government.
a) Zemskaya reform
b) City reform
3. Judicial reform.
4. Reforms of the education system.
a) School reform.
b) University reform
5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863-1

Reforms of Alexander II
(1855 - 1881)
Peasant (1861)
Zemskaya (1864)
City (1870)
Trial (1864)
Military (1874)
In the region of
education (1863-1864)

* Historians of the XIX - early XX century. assessed these reforms as great (KD Kavelin, VO Klyuchevsky, GA Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians considered them unauthorized

* Historians of the XIX - early XX century.
assessed these reforms as great
(KD Kavelin, VO Klyuchevsky, GA Dzhanshiev).
* Soviet historians considered them
unfinished and
half-hearted
(M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P.
Volobuev).

Name
Peasant
(1861)
Zemskaya (1864)
Urban (1870
g.)
Trial (1864
g.)
Military (1874)
In the region of
enlightenment
(1863-1864)
Content
reform
Their meaning
Them
limitations

Peasant Reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861.

Outcome
peasant
reform
Worn unfinished
character,
generated social
antagonisms
(contradictions)
Opened the way
to development
bourgeois relations
in Russia
"Will"
without land
6

Reforms
Their meaning
Peasant's Turning point,
th (1861) the line between
feudalism and
capitalism. Created
conditions for
approval
capitalist
way of life as
dominant.
Their disadvantages
Preserved
serf
remnants;
peasants not
got land in
complete
own,
should be
pay the ransom,
lost part
land (sections).

Local government reform

1864 was introduced "Regulations
about zemstvo institutions ". In the counties
and the provinces created bodies
local government -
zemstvos.

Zemskaya reform (1864). "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions"

Content of the reform
Creation of provincial and uyezd
zemstvo -
elected local government bodies
in the countryside
Zemstvo functions
Maintenance of local schools, hospitals;
construction of local roads;
organization of agricultural statistics, etc.
9

10. Dictionary

Zemstvos - elected
local authorities
self-government
decisive economic
field questions.

11. Zemskaya reform (1864). "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions"

Structure of zemstvo institutions
Zemskaya council
Zemsky assembly
executive agency
was elected
for 3 years
administrative body
in vowels
(vowels - elected members
zemstvo meetings and city councils)
were elected
population
on a census basis
in class
sign,
11
gathered annually

12. Zemskaya reform

In the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies
(councils) representatives of all classes worked together.
But the leading role was still played by the nobles, who looked at
"Manly" vowels from top to bottom. And the peasants often
treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and
voted debtors.
Zemsky assembly in
provinces. Engraving by
drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

13.

Curia - discharges, on
shared by voters
on property and
social characteristics in
pre-revolutionary Russia with
elections.

14. Zemskaya reform

1 vowel (deputy) for land and peasant
curiae was elected from every 3 thousand peasant plots.
In the city curia - from property owners,
equal in value to the same amount of land.
?
How many voices of peasants were equal to the voice of the landowner,
having 800 dess., if the shower allotment was 4 dess.?
In this case, 1 vote of the landowner \u003d 200 votes of the peasants.
Why, when creating zemstvo bodies, was not provided
equal suffrage for peasants,
townspeople and landowners?
Because in this case the educated minority
Would "drown" in the illiterate dark peasant mass.

15. Zemskaya reform

Zemsky assemblies met once a year:
county - for 10 days, provincial - for 20 days.
Estates of zemstvo assemblies
Nobles
Merchants
Peasants
Other
County zemstvo
41,7
10,4
38,4
9,5
Provincial Zemstvo
74,2
10,9
10,6
4,3
?
Why is the share of peasants among the provincial vowels
was noticeably lower than among the uyezd ones?
The peasants were not ready to deal with the distant
from their daily needs by provincial affairs.
And it was far and expensive to get to the provincial town.

16. Zemskaya reform

Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
Zemstvos received the right to invite to
the work of specialists in specific industries
farms - teachers, doctors, agronomists -
zemstvo officials
Zemstvos were introduced at the level of counties and
provinces
Zemstvos are decided not only by local
business affairs, but also actively
get involved in political struggle

17.

Your comments.
Zemstvos.
Moscow nobleman Kireev
wrote about the zemstvos:
“We nobles are vowels; merchants,
philistines, clergy -
consonants, the peasants are speechless. "
Explain what you wanted to say
author?

18. Electoral system in Russia

Principles
electoral
systems
The universal
Equal
Direct
Only men
Curia,
property
qualification
Multistage

19. Zemskaya reform

Zemsky assembly in the province.
Engraving after a drawing by K.A. Trutovsky.
1865 g.
?
What groups are divided into
zemstvo vowels in the figure
K. Trutovsky?
Zemstvos were engaged
exclusively
economic
questions:
road construction,
fire fighting,
agronomic
help to the peasants,
creating
food
stocks in case
poor harvest,
content
schools and hospitals.
For this they were going
zemstvo taxes.

20.

Off-road in the Tver province.
Zemsky doctor.
Hood. I.I. Tvorozhnikov.
Thanks to
zemstvo doctors
villager
first received
qualified
medical assistance.
Zemsky doctor was
wagon:
therapist, surgeon,
dentist,
obstetrician.
Sometimes operations
had to do
in a peasant hut.

21. Zemskaya reform

A special role among the zemstvo
office workers played by the teacher.
?
What do you think
was this role?
Zemsky teacher not only
taught children arithmetic
and literacy, but was often
Arrival of the teacher to the village.
and the only literate
Hood. A. Stepanov.
man in the village.
Thanks to this, the teacher became for the peasants
bearer of knowledge and new ideas.
It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many
liberal and democratically inclined people.

22. Zemskaya reform

Lesson at the zemstvo school
Penza province. 1890s
?
That, judging by the photo,
distinguished the zemstvo school
from the state or
parish?
In 1865-1880
in Russia there were 12 thousand
rural zemstvo schools, and
in 1913 - 28 thousand
Zemsky teachers taught
literacy over 2 million
peasant children, incl.
girls.
True, the initial
the training never became
compulsory.
Studying programs
produced
Ministry
education.

23. Zemskaya reform (1864). "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions"

contributed to the development
Value
education,
health care,
local improvement;
become centers
liberal social movement
was introduced initially in 35 provinces
(by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces)
Limitation
volost zemstvos were not created
operated under the control of the administration
(governors and ministries of the interior)
23

24.

Reforms
Zemskaya
(1864)
Their meaning
Around zemstvos
grouped
the most energetic
democratic
intelligentsia.
The activity was
aimed at
improvement of the situation
the masses.
Their disadvantages
Class
elections;
limited circle
questions,
solved
zemstvos.

25. Urban reform

The city reform began to be prepared in 1862, but due to an assassination attempt
on Alexander II its implementation was delayed.
The city status was adopted in 1870.
The supreme body of city government
the City Duma remained.
The elections were held for three curiae.
The curiae were formed on the basis of a property qualification.
A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the size of the paid
them city taxes.
Each curia paid 1/3 of taxes.
The first curia was the richest and smallest,
the third is the poorest and most numerous.
What do you think: the city elections were held
on an all-estates or non-estates basis?
?

26. Urban reform

City government:
Urban
thought
(administrative
organ)
Voters
1st curia
elects
City mayor
Urban
government
(executive
organ)
Voters
2nd curia
Voters
3rd curia

27. Urban reform

Samara
mayor
P.V. Alabin.
The head of the city government was
elective mayor.
In big cities, the mayor
usually elected a nobleman
or a wealthy guild merchant.
Like zemstvos, city councils and councils
were in charge of local
improvement:
paving and street lighting, maintenance
hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and
city \u200b\u200bschools,
trade care
and industry,
water supply device
and urban transport.

28. City reform of 1870. - "City position"

The essence
Creation of organs in cities,
similar zemstvos
by function and structure
City mayor
led
City government
was elected
City Council with vowels
were elected by the population on an unclassified qualification basis
28

29.

Reforms
Urban
(1870)
Their meaning
Contributed to
engaging broad
segments of the population to
management that
served as a prerequisite
to form in
Russian civil
society and legal
state.
Their disadvantages
Activities
urban
self-government
controlled
the state.

30. Judicial reform

31. Judicial Reform - 1864

Principles of legal proceedings
Zemsky assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
Inferiority
- the court's decision
does not depend on
estate
accessories
the accused
Election -
magistrate
and jury
Publicity - on
court hearings
could
attend
public, press
could report
during the judicial
process
Competitiveness -
participation in judicial
prosecutor's trial
(charge) and
lawyer (defense)
Independence -
on the judges could not
influence
administration

32. Judicial reform of 1864.

Basis of reform
Judicial Charters
jury trial
32

33. Judicial reform of 1864.

Basis of reform
Referee
appointed
The Ministry
justice
(principle
irremovability of judges)
Judicial Charters
court introduction
jury
Pronounces judgment
according
with the law
by jury
33

34. Judicial reform of 1864.

Jurors
are selected
from representatives of all classes (!)
on the basis of property qualification
12 people
Take out
verdict (decision)
about guilt, its degree
or the defendant's innocence
34

35. Judicial reform

The judges were getting high
salary.
Guilt decision
the accused was carried out
jurors
after hearing
witnesses and debate
prosecutor and lawyer.
Juror
could become Russian
subject from 25 to 70 years old
(qualifications - property and
settlement).
The court decision could be
appealed.

36. Judicial reform of 1864.

Additional elements
holding
judicial reform
Were created:
special courts for military personnel
special courts for clergy
world courts
to deal with minor civil and criminal offenses
36

37. Judicial reform of 1864.

The structure of the judiciary in Russia
Senate
supreme judicial and cassation
(cassation - appeal,
appeal against a lower court judgment)
organ
Trial Chambers
District Courts
Lawyer
The prosecutor
12 jurors (qualification)
Magistrates' courts
courts for consideration
most important cases
and appeals
(complaint, appeal for reconsideration)
on decisions of district courts
Judicial authorities of first instance.
Examines complex criminal
and civil cases
petty criminal and civil cases
37

38. Judicial reform

Misdemeanors and civil litigation
(the amount of the claim is up to RUB 500)
examined the magistrate's court.
World judge
decided matters alone,
could sentence to a fine (up to 300 rubles),
arrest for up to 3 months or imprisonment
imprisonment for up to 1 year.
Such a trial was simple, quick, and cheap.
World judge.
Modern drawing.

39. Judicial reform

Magistrate was elected
zemstvos or city councils from
number of persons over 25 years old, with
education not lower than secondary,
and judicial experience of three
years old.
The magistrate should have
own real estate
by 15 thousand rubles.
County Congress of Justices of the Peace
Chelyabinsk district.
Appeal against decisions
the magistrate could be
county convention
justices of the peace.

40. Judicial reform

Modern drawing.
Public participation:
The process involved
12 non-professional
judges - jury
assessors.
Jurors
delivered a verdict:
"Guilty";
"Guilty,
but deserves
indulgence ";
"Innocent."
Based on the verdict, the judge
pronounced the verdict.

41. Judicial reform

Jurors.
Drawing of the early twentieth century.
?
What can i say
on the composition of the board
jury judging
on this picture?
Jurors
elected by the provincial
zemstvo assemblies
and city councils
based
property qualification,
excluding class
accessories.

42. Judicial reform

Competitiveness:
In criminal proceedings, the charge
supported by the prosecutor, and the defense
the accused was carried out by a lawyer
(attorney at law).
In a jury trial where the verdict depended
not from professional lawyers,
the role of the lawyer was enormous.
Major Russian lawyers:
K.K. Arseniev, N.P. Karabchevsky,
A.F. Koni, F.N. Plevako, V.D. Spasovich.
Fyodor Nikiforovich
Plevako
(1842–1908)
appearing in court.

43. Judicial reform

Publicity:
The court began to be allowed
public.
Court reports were published
in press. Special
court reporters.
Portrait of a lawyer
Vladimir Danilovich
Spasovich.
Hood. I.E. Repin.
1891.
Lawyer V.D. Spasovich:
“We are to a certain extent knights of the word
alive, free, more free
now than in print, which will not calm down
the most zealous ferocious chairmen,
because while the chairman thinks about
stop you, the word has already galloped away
three miles away and it cannot be returned. "

44. Judicial reform of 1864.

Value
judicial reform
The most advanced
in the then world judicial
system.
Big step
in the development of the principle
"Separation of powers"
and democracy
Saving items
bureaucratic arbitrariness:
punishments
administratively
etc.
kept a number of vestiges of the past:
special courts.
44

45. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. 19th century

Directly
ny push -
defeat
Of Russia
in the Crimean
war 18531856gg.
45

46. \u200b\u200bDirections of military reform

Directions
Military
educational
establishments
The universal
military
duty
Rearmament
army and
fleet
The result is a massive modern army

47. Military reform

Milyutin D.A.,
military
minister,
initiator
reforms.

48. Military reform

Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin
(1816–1912),
minister of war
in 1861-1881
The first step in military reform was
canceled in 1855
military settlements.
In 1861, at the initiative of the new military
Minister D.A. Milyutin
service life has been shortened
from 25 to 16 years old.
In 1863, the army abolished
Physical punishment.
In 1867 was introduced
new military judicial regulations,
based on general principles of judicial
reforms (publicity, competition).

49. Military reform

Reform was carried out in 1863
military education:
cadet corps reorganized
in the military gymnasium.
Military gymnasiums gave a broad general
education (Russian and foreign
languages, mathematics, physics,
natural science, history).
The study load has doubled,
but physical and general military
training has been cut.
Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin
(1816–1912),
minister of war
in 1861-1881

50.1) Creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval

1) Creation of military schools and
schools for nobles,
junker schools for all classes,
the opening of the Military Legal
academy (1867) and
Naval Academy (1877)

51. According to the new regulations, the task was set to teach the troops only what is necessary in a war (shooting, loose formation, sappers),

According to the new statutes,
the task is to teach the troops only that
necessary in war (shooting,
loose system, sapper),
combat time reduced
training, bodily
punishment.

52. Military reform

?
What measure should have been the main
during the military reform?
Cancellation of recruitment.
?
Non-commissioned officer
Russian army.
Hood. V.D. Polenov.
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?
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?
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?
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{!LANG-dd3b85034758d4dfab94a70988f6cfed!}

{!LANG-857084611ce68e6671c249ab1e86bb3e!}

?
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Value
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59

60.

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{!LANG-26e6ddb9097c86e2158a63d516624ac1!}
{!LANG-520aef05e4aa244649e6c913e08d9e5d!}

{!LANG-74991302a7af89b3c31ad7640e84dd00!}

61

{!LANG-4fae5dddf929da645088f777bc0eda58!}

{!LANG-2e0a7ec345d727cad757eefa75ef3680!}
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{!LANG-1755ef269aae82e676f367a7516b390b!}
{!LANG-0e7e9685724b29172238928ddfe778c5!}
{!LANG-efadd32600de9d1ad181e23451233c7f!}
{!LANG-0e7e9685724b29172238928ddfe778c5!}
{!LANG-0c6ac83c81a61ff68b1acef106472319!}
62

{!LANG-edf1f3ccdce230ae1d793f009d6f6aa0!}

{!LANG-4acd0c6693d3c0e44b6403632cae10f2!}
{!LANG-6d2355caa7f34740e59306fc31e5b402!}
{!LANG-72587f738aef70d09323ab7b12a09416!}
{!LANG-1d7158a99f10592f4c362abb03b90e7a!}
{!LANG-5e45cec4baeed57b7bd156f3825206ca!}
{!LANG-f8acc8ecd67e3a96865caf7e441bc6f8!}
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{!LANG-45b6c1f6dc32e9005c722b2fc389d438!}
{!LANG-c0d3bf2ca93b8830999b723958e49194!}
{!LANG-6c059582a97063d5382ff981a971de15!}
{!LANG-165c28a616ed4c874655e18ed1e44334!}
{!LANG-3f273a6f02c327503da4336e961e25cf!}
{!LANG-970b3476bcae3eef93b430c893441dcd!}
{!LANG-3c07506ab6b54b81d57bc523acfa262f!}
{!LANG-5bdca5d9044f5675d4de2e8c4ef4f6c8!}
{!LANG-585a352de21a70f10f65945415fb70c3!}
{!LANG-ae5ce28bfb12a79e942f2f269023ebfa!}
{!LANG-2988307bdc2bc4bcd9ec5feb707aef05!}
{!LANG-7ac807ce15750d5e4c7c1fe156570cb6!}
{!LANG-3065e524964157dac82e8f7a56495e33!}
{!LANG-ce1ead29daa100a2683509109a7b790a!}
{!LANG-524765bd924b39bd9cba9ddd5d1cb172!}
{!LANG-c3316e85a4b0769bf84a7dd51d2ebb44!}
{!LANG-12ceb6f7b6a092877b5d69ff884a718c!}
{!LANG-7ac807ce15750d5e4c7c1fe156570cb6!}
{!LANG-ebc04d7f2fef4df46f7ab36253f4f82c!}
{!LANG-39d016a5d3de10fdc5518d18665c7345!}
{!LANG-f88f7957524570485f9f0efa61fea4d0!}
{!LANG-dc613c9bee5f570ce1dde9033d854b3f!}
{!LANG-56e4897458b4a475137fc38929f8b8a1!}

{!LANG-e2115328677c97111ea7b83e4b3252b2!}

{!LANG-8deae182b8658f358d716b694a91c9a0!}
{!LANG-05cf8ef878cb910b68cee662273d688c!}
{!LANG-f8071f8ea53b7118276b4ee386f3e38b!}
{!LANG-caea76e88c7231119532479fdd304053!}
{!LANG-5b2d74bd57e26b1b153c3466627fbe7d!}
{!LANG-106f68bc9fb7f7c3ff44545d0ea981d9!}
{!LANG-cae03ac6280060d75e0ffb2915fa8490!}
{!LANG-dbeaf23e7a4da8046d725bf63f8c4242!}
{!LANG-0548cf4dc97ba078223198f65f6b4d8f!}
?
{!LANG-3899176a6bf2da46ff78e4c30d67d39c!}
{!LANG-9abf9d0ec84883757d12b3ea0f078242!}
{!LANG-9dda6eeaa623042e9a31a7ebbea0890e!}
{!LANG-1030f796de24b62f1dce1aa8888060ce!}

{!LANG-7ac5c5e6bf61248180301d1a24f645eb!}

{!LANG-f289ff19d68f398cd40b6e4619db5398!}
{!LANG-2702922a55068bd076042ef7dce163c6!}
(1821-1886),
{!LANG-d69930e703c1a8983af7d92490ef80d9!}
{!LANG-436096b273bee9c1f1645c262404c1ee!}
{!LANG-5e14c38cf7f39fd748f773f762480857!}
{!LANG-83405e3dd50b5f3df1a6c5ca26a60c43!}
{!LANG-6e3da61a47e54bdee8277218da0797a9!}
{!LANG-02f1910a704a758e3661f367cc5b987e!}
{!LANG-0c6ef5b6b332151e7e378af1f64828d5!}
{!LANG-648f19e64fd4f2ebfa540c7cacfa5ca8!}
{!LANG-fc6b2f7d9e566de5a261adc5f1c0cf1b!}
{!LANG-8a47d29a1439ffecad7db9c8fc5bf639!}
{!LANG-3e2e1943c7a3003a4b0ed083a986f168!}
{!LANG-e9daa26d1b3b122fa25b7fcd24485005!}
{!LANG-60d4f4e321cf967c31e2b5e6f6b70425!}
{!LANG-7271474605f54c6ded6bf23d92864e35!}
{!LANG-16576730912f3a9f5deabca9fecb6b1d!}
{!LANG-ff1554e65745f6fab9e06a17fa7ce583!}
{!LANG-ad5190e2460dab4306eb81da32ea0764!}
{!LANG-946a5295eaffa174c10e594a5e67c9b2!}

{!LANG-47b7758a8b2a2ddaffca9e1283908c40!}

{!LANG-f289ff19d68f398cd40b6e4619db5398!}
{!LANG-2702922a55068bd076042ef7dce163c6!}
(1821-1886),
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{!LANG-436096b273bee9c1f1645c262404c1ee!}
{!LANG-683b790ff950c175a7a63a8205edace7!}
{!LANG-438892893b41426eede16c0e89e98cf6!}
{!LANG-8387c74015de0c7881f60a8ebfe9dfc2!}
{!LANG-cfca78531473bb0a49c08715010144ad!}
{!LANG-1ef5e60de3335eb70e8e0f47e5196261!}
{!LANG-92a8694bf70ce0ab7a81901f64f7d2ab!}
{!LANG-b612486746f4160235141f6cf13b6073!}
{!LANG-e76621a28bc662e0ddb3444752a532d2!}
{!LANG-e247ede78b326788d2446298094b2f39!}
{!LANG-ed994ccf68ab60293442c3a0e92636ac!}
{!LANG-794b386c9fdd8c05632fa659be49b358!}
{!LANG-09a134a334b16cabe01559573c86a01f!}
?
{!LANG-4dd37ea68ca9c9497d737874367b966c!}
{!LANG-fb173a61d7ffaa7fb2c4724c9f2e10c3!}

{!LANG-2ea8862a32816aa57840c95da0504f0e!}

{!LANG-cd2882dffbbb59ba31cffa7c51a6ab73!}
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{!LANG-4be899420235f4de69a7d63d1ada8df0!}
{!LANG-f4c3a41130a3340c0576258045b229cf!}
{!LANG-8b1699479a2cd2d9ba77e9b0cd9ac909!}
{!LANG-fe606bc4d07713eb40e23bbf1c5f0db6!}
{!LANG-477336747f0e654ebae1c9ccbf70af55!}
{!LANG-98cd46c6ded8047c9f21426c32616e68!}
{!LANG-b53e8df0ba87967eefa5b9dd46eeac1b!}
{!LANG-7d3a22deabddd9d31482bc63a2a8304d!}
{!LANG-820480c54b8e6262a023c4ed2759e56b!}
{!LANG-cce928c2cada77fda44f0d8a9748bc4f!}
{!LANG-2ca4f6842df0d63370e466e91a35240f!}
{!LANG-2ea5617feaa3546c36fee1105615755d!}
{!LANG-98902a4df437612272132bb09c975a0e!}
{!LANG-c1302192f95645fab48d3a8394072476!}
{!LANG-05e298882a88621f19890319755cf46a!}
{!LANG-bcc4a318bbfe428181c48bff8053e3e8!}
{!LANG-48d1030c28066043c880a5310f7e3848!}
{!LANG-c1302192f95645fab48d3a8394072476!}
{!LANG-05e298882a88621f19890319755cf46a!}
{!LANG-15d22e9649b8b2fed9de1b9e58e9b4ff!}
{!LANG-22d103b2d063699deaaa2845b4dd5342!}
educational
establishments

{!LANG-fdbc02ac6014e9dc8645b17142525e13!}

{!LANG-99844a737783bd75071ef29ee8257376!}
{!LANG-1702635f2fcb6d9e20510fe82bf8f8cd!}
{!LANG-f7aa0a09703c2d4056e9e991c252a8dd!}
{!LANG-f698a2fa154dccd056512406a6a9a985!}
{!LANG-c68ee46404d6dcd860bcb7042b781c66!}
{!LANG-c87105202a06b296cdf6d6bdb1d3c150!}
{!LANG-0c565ae22bd4c656fcafbeaee5cab200!}
{!LANG-18eb7a35a1954be6a7c230d6099aef67!}
{!LANG-331f4e680be6c20d1e279590ff28d227!}
{!LANG-3c7c4adad4557bfc3060499b933ccde8!}
{!LANG-1ae58b4fb80f32fd3aa31a7589313595!}
{!LANG-0937723af3d7afeca4ed3b2de974accf!}
{!LANG-373b0b230298dee36e37d3b794c8dadc!}
{!LANG-d621575b18629bd027388f14b66f4280!}
{!LANG-db374cf9b94c01765dc303ed76b79ffa!}
{!LANG-ceae0aa67c5b8fc48bc6d88699160c4a!}
{!LANG-1996b609e64d6451ca27ae39d5d621f9!}

69.

{!LANG-c043c8c6a30f3424aab8f0cb4a9cce92!}
(1863-1864)
{!LANG-8d17fa751c620e46e1338be774879aa3!}
{!LANG-9d6543a54ef7419e9d45b24e1501e736!}
{!LANG-725e9abe238fee9ecf2ba79ce3b89593!}
{!LANG-17f769c36fedd6cdbc760b09f9abf49e!}
{!LANG-f47c5d8b208213df21ce124023dcc91b!}
{!LANG-49a1a27a0e2959e8e17fcc64477c2f75!}

70.

Reforms
Their meaning
Their disadvantages
{!LANG-e72e7d66858a13cf3ddc38d4292c626c!}
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{!LANG-86722e21a788e79e62007c4dee83f69c!}
{!LANG-a1b138d1138aa5a6c0117866f17ed4d7!}
{!LANG-52f1b014d45133470736e273efdf6f8c!}
{!LANG-d1118a418ede7756971721dd86935e15!}
{!LANG-78852af1adb86e69d685e59e0e3c502c!}
{!LANG-cc5021dfab4f723a37ce3a8e15d46abd!}

{!LANG-accd0174a719dc059b47cb8f94f20a58!}

{!LANG-b3578b4729a56312aaaac3a9e1bfa6c6!}
{!LANG-58b1b30afcb53a2829bcb5b08ae16e4d!}
{!LANG-861de4c09a589ce00bb1884ec69d073a!}
{!LANG-1fa4c85c0521e7af1d89c0603edf6cde!}
{!LANG-21d47f491d8c1611656e06d1913ba9b6!}
{!LANG-d735ef4ebee2befb9bb58ccb08e5deb5!}
71

{!LANG-802233fdf62faae3d0a89ca0ee5e8149!}

{!LANG-e786826e768811a8049104409e2078d7!}
{!LANG-941f639b2e23c96914d3a8f42fb1b5e8!}
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{!LANG-ed42c610a349cb5f49703c203e5aa1ea!}
{!LANG-bceb6a7c12def3ff794555cdd83de0db!}
{!LANG-e830afee171afcda0297867f6569ae71!}
{!LANG-691d99a4c14dab08bff700660fb82fb8!}
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{!LANG-d0a984a16fef96eea484f34eb413720b!}
{!LANG-68b6d2c6b06446099e0395a5d28a1c2e!}
{!LANG-5564dbdfa0664ae30fdcbff0686cf394!}
{!LANG-f28e00a15e556807077bb0de4f67893c!}
{!LANG-e1ba7f88d4f05852804b22b08cef4aac!}
{!LANG-d4d4a662ff5578f1844f48dcf17ceb51!}
{!LANG-0f2027d7f985c873251436e9db70fb93!}

{!LANG-879198fdedfd050b82b3a46f0522a415!}

?
{!LANG-485e8bfb0b215ff25f0859ca4729f2d0!}
{!LANG-71b416e76a1ca8e1eafb15401a753d98!}
{!LANG-ed541b954fa96e4cf7c1e258f44f6e7d!}
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{!LANG-1f8d5ac442addb96d57dc9ac9b562aa9!}
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{!LANG-72ca4ad916e5a53b17fc99c28b46f655!}
{!LANG-95964254901ab4351bd0eee7a1495969!}
{!LANG-c1313cf2019e57786de3deea041971e7!}
{!LANG-7df8fb25404cd9e34b0bc34992e5b07a!}
{!LANG-26113ec3559d72598aeafe03a8e554ec!}
{!LANG-60bf2b61b4ba04fd17c333e81d05d14e!}