Life and customs of the 19th century. Life and customs - Knowledge Hypermarket Life customs in the early 19th century

Negligee and morning toilet in the 19th century
In modern Russian, the word “negligee” is associated only with a careless manner of dressing, too homely in front of strangers. In the last century it had two meanings. The first was associated with a careless attitude towards something. It was in this sense that M.S. Shchepkin used the word “negligee” in his “Notes”: “I conducted the rehearsal, as they say, negligee: I didn’t play, but only said what was appropriate for the role.”

But “negligee” was much more common in the sense of “home clothes for the first half of the day,” when visits are made only by close people. It is no coincidence that the fashion news reported on “dressy negligees,” that is, negligence was calculated in advance and was intended for prying eyes.

Both men and women wore negligee clothing. Secular people received friends in their dressing gowns who came to smoke paquitosca. At first it was not customary to smoke in the company of women and smoking was indulged in the morning. Here is what E. Yankova reports about this: “In our time, very few people did not sniff, and smoking was considered very reprehensible, and for women to smoke, this was unheard of; and the men smoked in their offices or in the open air, and if they were with the ladies, they would always ask first: “Excuse me.”

No one ever smoked in the living room or in the hall, even without guests in their family, so that, God forbid, somehow this smell would not remain and so that the furniture would not stink.
Each time has its own special habits and concepts. Smoking began to spread noticeably after 1812, and especially in the 1820s: cigars began to be brought in, which we had no idea about, and the first ones that were brought to us were considered a curiosity.”

E. Yankova’s testimony is partly incorrect. From other memoirs we learn that women allowed themselves to smoke, even in the presence of guests. A.O. Smirnova-Rosset writes: “Kiselev and Fyodor Golitsyn did not smoke. And this is what Kiselev suddenly asked my husband:

Smirnov, how could you let your wife smoke?
- My dear, after her second birth she had a nervous illness, she did nothing, she was mortally bored, she had spleen, and I advised her to smoke to unwind.
“I also suffer from melancholy, that’s why I take Vichy waters, which helps me during the winter, which is no better in Paris than in St. Petersburg; the sun is rarely there.
- But Alexandrita was also treated in Marienbad, and this helped her, but she still had the habit of smoking; Pahitoska is a very pleasant companion, and it was the wife of the Austrian envoy, Countess Fikelmon, who brought her into fashion in St. Petersburg.”

Later, smoking became so widespread that special smoking rooms appeared, pre-designed during the construction of residential buildings. In theaters they smoked in coffee shops - essentially smoking rooms. A men's jacket of a special cut - a tuxedo - also suggested smoking as a pastime, although it was clothing for visits. Women also smoked - the heroine of Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina smoked pakhitoski, but still only at home. Women began to smoke in public - at a party or in a restaurant - only at the turn of the century.

But let's go back to the beginning of the 19th century. What was a young man's negligee like in those years? It could have been, first of all, an arkhaluk. Arkhaluk, akhaluk - in Russia of the 19th century, a men's caftan without buttons, without shoulder seams, that is, sewn not from cut pieces of fabric, but from material folded in half, in which the original width of the panel determines how the sleeves will be sewn.
Arkhaluki were made of thick silk or cotton fabric, usually with an ornament in the form of multi-colored stripes. Elements of oriental costume entered the life of the nobility quite widely already at the end of the 10s of the 19th century. Arkhaluk was initially used only as home clothing, preserving all the features of the cut and ornamentation of the fabric adopted in the East.
Little known, unfortunately, to a wide circle of readers today, the poet A.I. Polezhaev wrote: “My Ahaluk, ahaluk, demicotonic ahaluk, you are the work of the gentle hands of a supportive Asian woman.” The most famous literary owner of the arkhaluk is Nozdryov from Gogol’s “Dead Souls” - “simply dark-haired in a striped arkhaluk.”

Striped fabrics in an oriental style have been known in Russia since the 16th century and were called “roads”. In the 19th century, they were produced in large quantities not only for the domestic market, but also for export.
In the middle of the 19th century, the name “arhaluk” already meant any striped robe, and not just clothes of a certain cut. In A.A. Agin’s illustrations for “Dead Souls,” created by the artist in 1846 - 1847, Nozdrev’s arhaluk is more likely of a European cut than an Eastern one.
The portrait of Pushkin by K. Mather (1839) is widely known, in which the poet is depicted in an arkhaluk, described by V.A. Nashchokina: “I was usually placed in the middle, and on both sides my husband and Pushkin in his red arkhaluk with green checks.”

Although the cut changed noticeably, the name remained in the literature for quite a long time. Over time, arkhaluk began to be called not only home clothing, but also clothing intended for the street.

Here is an excerpt from D.V. Grigorovich’s story “Anton the Miserable”:

“He was wearing a gray nankeen single-breasted arkhaluk, lined with lambskin.” The described costume is more consistent with the concept of “bekesha”, since we are talking about tightly fastened clothing made of one-color fabric, lined with fur (see “Kaftan”). It is possible that the writer had some other clothing in mind, since he wrote about gray nanka - a fabric that until the middle of the 19th century was produced only in various shades of yellow.

The most expensive fabric for men's home clothing was thermolama, or tarmala, often mentioned in literary works. Here is an example from N.A. Nekrasov’s story “Three Countries of the World”: “If you are not busy, I will ask you to sew me a robe... from tarmalama; I, you know, like good things.”

Thermolama, tarmalama is a very dense silk fabric, the threads of which are twisted from several strands, that is, much thicker than other silk fabrics. In addition, the thermolama was woven from raw silk, so it had a characteristic golden color. For a long time, thermolama was imported to Russia from Iran.
The cut of such a robe is described in Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”: “He was wearing a robe made of Persian fabric, a real oriental robe, without the slightest hint of Europe, without tassels, without velvet, without a waist, very roomy, so Oblomov could wrap himself in it twice . The sleeves, in constant Asian fashion, went wider and wider from the fingers to the shoulder.”

Oddly enough, women's toilets for negligee had almost no special names, different from everyday or elegant clothes. Shlafor and powder mancer have been in both men's and women's wardrobes throughout their history.
Shlafor, or dressing gown, is a spacious home garment without buttons, with a great smell, as it was belted with a belt, most often made of a twisted cord. Since dressing gowns were worn by both men and women, they can be found in literature when describing home clothes of both sexes.

“But soon everything changed:
Corset, album, Princess Alina,
Sensitive poems notebook
She forgot: she started calling
Shark like the old Selina
And finally updated
There is cotton wool on the robe and cap.”
(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In terms of cut and purpose, there is no difference between a robe and a dressing gown. Men were allowed to receive guests in a dressing gown or dressing gown if the quality of the fabric and decoration corresponded to the idea of ​​elegant clothing.

“Don’t put on me the satin dress with crimson stripes: a dead woman no longer needs a dress. What does she need it for? And you will need it: you can make yourself a formal robe from it, in case guests arrive, so that you can show yourself decently and receive them,” says Pulcheria Ivanovna, the heroine of Gogol’s story “Old World Landowners.”

The custom of receiving guests in a “ceremonial negligee” appeared in Russia only in the 18th century, along with French fashion. According to one version, Ivan the Terrible was angry with his son Ivan and killed him because Ivan stood up for his pregnant wife, whom her father began to beat only because on a hot day when he entered her bedroom, she was not dressed in several clothes. The concept of “dressed - undressed” has thus changed.
Women in the 19th century wore a dressing gown or robe only before lunch, when doing household chores, but in the village, abandoning secular manners, they did not change clothes throughout the day. The dressing gown often had pockets, was comfortable and did not require complex hairstyles and jewelry.

In the 18th century, the powder mancer came into use. There were several forms of writing the name of this costume detail. Powdermancer, powdermancer, powdermantel - a special cape that was used by men and women when applying makeup.
Household makeup in the 18th century required an abundance of blush and powder for both sexes. E. Yankova recalls that “to arrive somewhere without wearing rouge would mean to act in ignorance.” Men also used makeup: “The prince deigns to sit in a powder mantel, and one hairdresser in an embroidered French caftan combs his hair, and the other holds lipstick, powder and a comb on a silver saucer” (A.I. Herzen. “Duty First”).

Wigs and hairstyles were powdered after the toilet was finished, just before leaving the dressing room. Very interesting descriptions of the process of applying powder to the hair have been preserved: “The dandy woman held a long mask with mica mirrors against her eyes, and the hairdresser powdered with a muzzle, small furs or a silk brush.
Some had special cabinets, empty inside, in which they powdered; the lady climbed into the closet, the doors closed and fragrant dust gently fell on her head. We used powder of different colors - pink, fawn, gray, á la vanille, a fleur d'orange, mille fleurs.

By the very end of the 18th century, powdered wigs went out of fashion. There is information that the abandonment of powder was caused by the fashion “introduced by the Jacobin of Champagne and his retinue.” Among women's household items, the powder mantle has, in fact, survived to this day, especially since it did not lose its significance in the 19th century. In Turgenev we read: “...the father in a dressing gown, without a tie, the aunt in powder” (“The Hours”). Only in the 19th century was the powder mancer no longer intended for public viewing.

Perhaps the special women's clothing for the house in the first half of the day was the hood. This name extended to several elements of women's costume - outerwear, home clothes, and even a hat, known as a bonnet.

The hood was worn only by women, so mentioning it in connection with men's clothing sounded comical.

For example, in Gogol’s “The Overcoat”: “You need to know that Akaki Akakievich’s overcoat also served as a subject of ridicule by officials; They even took away the noble name of the overcoat and called it a hood.”
The hood was a loose garment with sleeves and a pass-through closure at the front. In the 20s and 30s of the 19th century, a woman's outer dress for the street was called a hood. It is in this sense that Pushkin uses the word “hood” in “The Queen of Spades”:

“Lizaveta Ivanovna came in wearing a bonnet and hat.
- Finally, my mother! - said the countess. - What kind of outfits! Why is this?.. who should I seduce?”

In fashion reviews of the 20s, there is a mention of hoods for the street: “... Grodenapl is in great fashion: it is used to make ruffles for dresses and winter hoods for carriage rides.” Later, by the 40s, the hood becomes only home wear.

Gogol repeatedly uses the word “hood” in order to emphasize the shapelessness and unkempt appearance of his hero. For example, Plyushkin in “Dead Souls” is described as follows: “For a long time he could not recognize what gender the figure was: a woman or a man. The dress she was wearing was completely indefinite, similar to a woman’s hood.”

In the second half of the 19th century, they no longer published advice on how to make a negligee more elegant. Moreover, collections of advice on good manners emphasized that those who do not have sufficient funds to maintain impeccable white linen and lace should wear a modest and practical house dress instead of a negligee.

costume, jewelry, everyday life, customs, life

Russia 19th century In terms of social composition, it presents a motley picture. The capital's bourgeoisie, large factory owners, financiers, whose way of life and customs were subject to reformation back in the days of Peter I and Catherine II, join the noble aristocracy. Provincial merchants and townspeople differ from the aristocracy in their taste and costume.

Article text:

The daily life of Russians at the beginning and first half of the 19th century was very different. Residents of cities and industrialized areas of the country could talk about serious and noticeable changes. Life in the remote province, in the village in particular, went on basically as before. Much depended on the class and property status of people, their place of residence, religion, habits and traditions.

At the end of the 18th century, romanticism arose, and, especially after the works of J.-J. Rousseau, it becomes accepted to strive for nature, for the “naturalness” of morals and behavior. “Unnatural” fashions begin to evoke a negative attitude, and “naturalness” becomes the ideal, examples of which were sought in the female figures of antiquity or in the “theatricalized” peasant life. The clothes are now simple: there are no more luxurious skirts with hoops, no corsets, no heavy brocade. Women's clothing is made from lightweight fabric. A shirt with a very high waist seems “natural” to defenders of the cult of Nature.

The first gesture of rebellion, as often happened in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, was made by a woman. In the portraits of this time we see how a new style of dressing was combined with naturalness, simplicity of movements, and a lively facial expression. Thus, in V. Borovikovsky’s portrait of M.I. Lopukhina, it is by no means accidental that the background, instead of the then usual bust of the empress or a magnificent architectural structure, became ears of rye and cornflowers. The girl and nature are correlated in their naturalness. Dresses appeared that later became known as Onegin dresses, although they came into fashion long before the publication of Eugene Onegin.

Along with the change in clothing style, hairstyles also change: women (like men) refuse wigs - here, too, “naturalness” wins. The change in tastes also affected cosmetics (as well as everything in general that changed a woman’s appearance). The Enlightenment ideal of simplicity sharply reduces the use of paints. Paleness (if not natural, then created with great skill!) has become an obligatory element of female attractiveness.

The beauty of the 18th century is full of health and is valued for her corpulence. People of that time thought that a plump woman was a beautiful woman. It is a large, plump woman who is considered the ideal of beauty - and portrait painters, often sinning against the truth, bring those being treated closer to the ideal. Giving preference to curvaceous shapes, one treats appetite accordingly. A woman of that time eats a lot and is not ashamed of it. With the approach of the era of romanticism, the fashion for health ends. Now she seems beautiful and begins to like her pallor - a sign of the depth of her heartfelt feelings. Health seems to be something vulgar... A woman of the era of romanticism should be pale, dreamy, sadness suits her. The romantic combination of the “angelic” and the “devilish” is also part of the norm of female behavior.

In Russia since the 19th century. Fashion magazines begin to be published regularly (Moscow Mercury, Modny Vestnik, General Fashion Magazine, Fashion Store), as well as art and literary magazines Library for Reading, Sovremennik, featuring French models. Luxurious toilets of the Russian aristocracy are still brought from Paris or sewn according to European fashion patterns. The famous St. Petersburg and Moscow sewing workshops “Lomanov”, “Mrs. Olga”, “Brizak”, “Ivanova”, “Shanso” were operating successfully during this period. The paintings of Russian artists of the 19th century and fashion magazines indicate that the costume of the Russian aristocracy strictly followed the general European development in time and form.

In the 30s further pomp and pomp of Russian court etiquette and costume is established. It is a kind of echo of the brutal reaction in the public life of Russia after the massacre of the Decembrists in 1825. Tsar Nicholas I, by decree of February 27, 1834, established a special form of Russian court costume. Fashionable French forms are mechanically combined with Russian ornaments of gold and silver embroidery and decoration with jewelry. The purpose of this pseudo-Russian style is to present the tsarist autocracy as an exponent of popular interests. Gold embroidery workshops were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where ceremonial palace toilets were embroidered, the cost of which exceeded 20-25 thousand gold rubles.

Never has any fashion been as sophisticated in terms of jewelry as the fashion of the 19th century: tiaras, combs, ferronnieres, earrings, necklaces, brooches, bracelets, rings - all this is not a complete list of items necessary when creating a costume. The costume is designed to create a certain figurative impression, and jewelry plays a significant role in this. Like the entire costume, jewelry changed depending on fashion, and the manner of its use was consistent with the purpose of the costume. Their number and shape are always clearly visible in portraits, for jewelry was the class, family, and personal pride of rich people and the subject of careful reproduction by artists.

Jewelry was divided into ceremonial, which always had more stones (hair parures, combs, earrings, necklaces, tiaras, chokers, bracelets, rings, buckles), ordinary ones - for visits and small receptions at home (earrings, brooches, bracelets, chains, rings), and, finally, such everyday jewelry as brooches with Florentine mosaics, earrings with semi-precious stones, and other inexpensive items were worn every day.

Eclecticism, a mixture of different artistic styles, which begins in the 40-60s, especially emphasizes the return to Rococo. Blue, white, lemon satin fabrics, woven with bouquets of flowers and embroidered with rocaille patterns, fluffy crinoline skirts, headdresses and hairstyles are reminiscent of the brilliant marquises of the times of Louis XV. The Art Nouveau style in Russian costume is reflected in the female portraits of Repin and V. Serov. The costumes, curved with rigid corsets and bustles, create a mysterious female appearance, detached from real life.

Russia 19th century In terms of social composition, it presents a motley picture. The capital's bourgeoisie, large factory owners, financiers, whose way of life and customs were subject to reformation back in the days of Peter I and Catherine II, join the noble aristocracy. Provincial merchants and townspeople differ from the aristocracy in their taste and costume. The main feature of the costume of merchants and townspeople is the combination of the forms of Russian folk dress with elements of European fashion, but, as a rule, far behind in time.

The class character of Russian costume of the 19th century. perfectly conveyed in Fedotov’s famous film “The Major’s Matchmaking.” Here is a matchmaker in a bright jacket of a bourgeois woman from the 40s, and a father - a merchant in a long frock coat, and a mother - a merchant in a rich bright silk dress with an invariable shawl on her shoulders, and a maid in the clothes of a city commoner, and the bride herself in a crinoline dress made of French silk, also with a lace shawl.

Nobility. In the first half of the 19th century, the theme of the wealth of the nobles turned out to be closely connected with the theme of their ruin. The debts of the capital's nobility reached astronomical figures. One of the reasons was the idea that had taken root since the time of Catherine II: true noble behavior presupposes a willingness to live beyond one’s means. The desire to “reduce income with expenses” became characteristic only in the mid-30s. But even then, many remembered with sadness about the fun times of the past.

The debts of the nobility grew for another reason. It had a strong need for free money. The income of the landowners consisted mainly of the products of peasant labor. Life in the capital required hard cash. Landowners for the most part did not know how to sell agricultural products, and were often simply ashamed to do so. It was much easier to go to a bank or lender to borrow or mortgage an estate. It was assumed that for the money received, the nobleman would acquire new estates or increase the profitability of old ones. However, as a rule, the money was spent on building houses, balls, and expensive outfits.

In the first half of the century, noble children received home education. Usually it consisted of studying two or three foreign languages ​​and the initial mastery of basic sciences. Teachers most often hired foreigners, who in their homeland served as coachmen, drummers, actors, and hairdressers.

Private boarding schools and state schools contrasted home education. Most Russian nobles traditionally prepared their children for the military field. From the age of 7-8, children were enrolled in military schools, and upon completion they entered the higher cadet corps in St. Petersburg. The government considered evasion of service reprehensible. In addition, service was a component of noble honor and was associated with the concept of patriotism.

The home of the average nobleman in the city was decorated at the beginning of the 19th century with Persian carpets, paintings, mirrors in gilded frames, and expensive mahogany furniture. In the summer, the nobles who retained their estates left the stuffy cities. Village manor houses were of the same type and consisted of a wooden building with three or four columns at the front porch and a pediment triangle above them. In winter, usually before Christmas, the landowners returned to the city. Convoys of 15-20 carts were sent to the cities in advance and carried supplies: geese, chickens, pork hams, dried fish, corned beef, flour, cereals, butter.

The first half of the 19th century was a time of searching for “European” alternatives to ancient morals. They were not always successful. The interweaving of “Europeanism” and customary ideas gave the life of the nobility features of bright originality and attractiveness.

The clothing of the nobility acquired features of austerity and was freed from the obsessive complexity of details. At the beginning of the 19th century, light ball gowns and “Danque” hairstyles came into fashion. Dresses were worn over a cambric shirt or pink tights so that the figure was visible through the fabric.

In Russia, such dresses were in use until the War of 1812. Fashionistas wore anklets with translucent dresses, one on the ankle and the other above the knee. “Moscow Mercury” wrote in 1803 that the main thing in a suit is the outline of the body. If a woman’s legs are not clearly shaped from her shoes to her torso, then we can assume that she doesn’t know how to dress or wants to be distinguished by her strangeness. The most typical and integral accessory of a woman's toilet of that time was a shawl, which was sometimes pinned with a brooch. The brooch, which came into fashion in Russia back in the 18th century, became the most common decoration in the 19th century. The desire to give a woman the appearance of an antique statue that served as the ideal of beauty did not allow for a large amount of decoration. In the very first years of the 19th century, it was considered bad form to wear a lot of jewelry even to balls. At this time, diamond-cut steel jewelry came into fashion - buckles, buttons, brooches, bracelets.

From 1806 to 1809, women of the world were especially fond of jewelry. They wore rings on all fingers, for several hours at a time, with colorful enamel caps. Heavy pendants of earrings weighed down the ears, and a mass of bracelets of various shapes covered the hands. Hairstyles, as required by the style of the dresses, were decorated with tiaras, gold hoops, wreaths of artificial flowers and gold ears, and gold and silver oak or laurel leaves. But the neck and bare shoulders remained unadorned. One of the most striking manifestations of fashion of this time was the fascination with carved gemstones. It passed through many European countries and captured Russia, where artistic stone carving became an independent type of applied art. Miniature sculpture in stone conquered Russian society. Cameos—relief gems—were created by the capital's best jewelers; many cameos were brought from abroad. Among the imported items were not only works by modern masters, but also unique antique finds. Cameos for some time eclipsed diamonds and expensive gems. They were collected and used to decorate tiaras, necklaces, pins, buckles, and brooches. Cameos were used to make bracelets and entire sets of jewelry. To create cameos, stones of different colors and transparency were used. Layered agates and onyxes were very popular, in which the artist combined sculptural and pictorial means of representation. In small jewelry such as tie pins, cameos were the main and only detail of the artistic design. A thin gold or silver frame served an essentially utilitarian function, helping to secure the stone and connect it to the hairpin.

Since the middle of the 19th century. In Russia, a critical attitude of a certain part of society towards blind imitation of Western customs and fashion appears. It covered wide circles of the nobility and intelligentsia.

Slavophiles, who rejected everything European, widely promoted a return to pre-Petrine Russian clothing. Many of them are in the 40s and 50s. They put on Russian kosovorotka shirts, undershirts, and tucked their trousers into their boots. This thoughtless imitation of the external forms of antiquity gave birth to the fashion for the “Russian style” in clothing.

Officers and bureaucracy. The problem of material support became the most important one for officers in the first half of the 19th century. Officer salaries generally grew, but at a slower rate than for food and services.

At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the officers owned land and other property. His salary was therefore not his only source of income. By the middle of the century the situation had changed. Elements of social protection appeared: pensions, provision for fallen officers, etc.

The officers satisfied cultural needs without incurring additional expenses. The officers' meeting occupied the most important place in his daily life. Here the officers spent most of their free time, got to know each other, and celebrated holidays. The regiment commander regularly gave balls and dinner parties. On other days, officers stationed in a town or city were invited to balls at the local noble assembly.

Camping life, service in conditions unsuitable for normal life, in remote areas, frequent moving from city to city were not conducive to starting a family. Having decided to get married, the officer most often retired “due to domestic circumstances.”

The financial situation of the bureaucrats was even more difficult.

The Institute of Clerical Servants was the initial stage of the official service, through which the bulk of future officials had to pass. At the same time, the length of stay in it was determined by origin and education.

Entry into service in a civil department was determined by three conditions: class origin, age, and level of knowledge.

By “right of origin” the following were allowed to enter the civil service: children of hereditary and personal nobles, children of priests and deacons of both Orthodox and Uniate faiths, as well as children of Protestant pastors and merchants of the first guild. In addition to these categories, children of clerks who did not have a rank, as well as children of court servants, postmen and other lower postal servants, foremen and apprentices of factories and factories, were allowed to enter the service.

The situation of people on salaries was aggravated by the continuous fall in the exchange rate of banknotes: less and less paper money in silver was given for the ruble. The working day of a clerical employee exceeded ten or more hours. The work was usually purely mechanical. They had to rewrite papers in the mornings and evenings by candlelight, on which the authorities mercilessly skimped. Loss of vision was a common illness for most employees. Malnutrition, stuffy offices, fear of superiors led to tuberculosis (consumption) and nervous diseases.

The bureaucrats tried in their own way to make up for the lack of funds, robbing petitioners, extorting bribes, committing forgery and other crimes. The entertainment of the overwhelming majority of officials was very unpretentious.

At the beginning of the 19th century, civil service among the nobles was not considered honorable. Thus, the author of a book dedicated to the centenary of the state chancellery wrote about this: “In the concepts of that time, the civil service did not enjoy much sympathy at all, the nicknames “prikazny”, “ink soul”, “nettle seed”, etc., were in common use since the times of Sumarokov and Fonvizin, clearly evidenced a disdainful attitude towards people, who, however, were entrusted with important state affairs. For a nobleman, joining the ranks of officials was considered inappropriate, and this view was sometimes supported by instructions from senior government officials.”

Merchants. Merchants were slower than other segments of the urban population to embrace innovations in everyday life, partly due to the traditional hostility of the “aristocracy of blood.”

The bulk of the merchants still observed the traditional way of life and methods of doing business. In the houses, strict subordination was maintained, similar to the requirements of Domostroy. In order to increase and preserve capital, merchants preferred to personally control the progress of affairs, not trusting assistants and clerks too much. They sat in their barns and shops for 8-10 hours a day. An ordinary merchant family lived on a common household, purchasing material for clothing “in pieces,” for everyone. For a long time, the cash register of an enterprise or establishment was also general, and at the end of the year the total amount of cash was withdrawn. In his private life, the merchant gravitated towards peace and comfort, surrounding himself not so much with European novelties, but with durable and conveniently crafted items of traditional everyday life.

The picture of the life of the privileged classes of Russia clearly reflects both the changes that have occurred and the inconsistency and slowness of these changes. The everyday demands and living conditions of the nobility, officers, bureaucrats, and merchants gradually became closer. But the borders, erected and artificially maintained, remained inviolable.

Peasants and workers. Contemporary about changes in the peasant environment in the 40s. wrote this: “... rural huts are being made cleaner and tidier, peasants are no longer keeping pets in their living quarters.” These observations relate primarily to the houses of wealthy peasants. There were significant differences in clothing: the rich peasants exchanged bast shoes for boots, an army coat and rough trousers for a caftan, and corduroy pants, a felted hat for a cap.

The peasants ate mainly vegetables grown in their own gardens. In the first half of the 19th century, a peasant consumed three pounds of bread a day. Potatoes had not yet become one of the most important crops; only 1.5% of the sown area was allocated to it. Not many of the peasants could enjoy pies, jellies or noodles. Kalach was considered a delicacy, gingerbread was considered a real gift.

Under the influence of the townspeople among the villagers he received in the first half of the 19th century. widespread tea drinking. In cities at this time, tea drinking developed in various forms: drinking tea in taverns, homemade treats for guests, and, finally, a favorite family meal, without which they did not start the day or go to bed. The tea drinking procedure itself developed in Russia according to the Western European, and not according to the Eastern model. They drank tea from samovars and cups at an ordinary dinner table, mostly black, not green, without various kinds of additives so characteristic of eastern peoples. Coffee is also gaining popularity in some places.

Widespread consumption of potatoes has become a new phenomenon in the everyday life of Russians. By the middle of the 19th century. it has taken a prominent place among other everyday foods.

The development of otkhodnichestvo influenced the life of the village. The otkhodniks, albeit in a distorted form at times, introduced their fellow villagers to urban customs and way of life. Rural youth were especially quick to pick up on innovations. Interest in dancing increased; On holidays, simple carousels were installed in villages and booths were erected for puppet shows.

The lifestyle of the factory people of Russia was just taking shape. It was a homeless, camp life, unsettled, creepy. The workers were subject to strict instructions from their bosses, who tried to regulate not only their working hours, but also their daily lives. The workers lived in multi-story barracks, in small rooms on the sides of a through corridor.

The workers' table was poor; porridge and bread helped out. The mortality rate was twice the national average. The literate were as rare among them as among the peasants; of all the entertainments, only the tavern and the tavern were available to them. There was no factory labor legislation. The manufacturer and local authorities were all-powerful in dealing with the working people.

In the last third of the 19th century. The costume of factory workers is also formed. For men - dark blouses, surrounded by a belt or sash, vests, jackets, trousers tucked into boots. For women, pairs: a sundress and a jacket made of the same fabric, a head scarf, a shoulder scarf, and an apron. Festive clothing followed generally accepted fashion, but without bustles or drapes on the skirt.

Chintz and other factory-made cotton fabrics were used for everyday clothing, and inexpensive silk, half-silk and half-woolen fabrics were used for festive clothing.

European-style utensils, in particular porcelain and earthenware, are increasingly penetrating the everyday life of the ordinary population of towns and villages. Wooden spoons in cities are being largely replaced by metal ones, and in everyday life there were spoons of different sizes and purposes: tea spoons, dessert spoons, table spoons. Special table knives and forks appeared. True, the fork even in the middle of the 19th century. was not a very familiar and somewhat aristocratic subject. All noted innovations were a consequence of the socio-economic and cultural processes that took place during the period under review.

Life in cities. Noticeable changes took place in the first half of the 19th century. in the everyday life of the Russian population, especially city dwellers. City streets quickly began to be lined with large stone houses. According to F.F. Vigel, in the center of St. Petersburg, “philistine three- and four-story houses on all the streets grew by leaps and bounds.” The vast Zaryadye area in the central part of Moscow, which burned to the ground in 1812, was quickly built up with two- and three-story stone houses. The formerly wooden merchant Zamoskvorechye began to be dressed in stone. By the middle of the 19th century. There were stone residential buildings in most cities. A new type of housing is becoming widespread (mainly in large cities) - an apartment building, which usually included many similar apartments in several rooms with separate entrances; they were rented out. The number of individual outbuildings in cities is decreasing: stables, sheds, bathhouses, drying sheds, etc., which was associated with the development of trade, transport, and urban management.

City streets became busier. The nature of folk festivals and mass entertainment changed. Crowded celebrations in gardens and parks, squares and boulevards became more frequent. In Moscow, for example, in the 20s. XIX century Neskuchny Garden and Petrovsky Park became popular vacation spots. In Neskuchny Garden, in the “air theatre”, the predecessor of the later “green theatres”, performances were staged. Petrovsky Park was famous for its “voxal”, where concerts were given. Noisy Easter festivities brought together representatives of different classes in a vast wasteland, where Novinsky Boulevard was later laid out. The residents of St. Petersburg also loved the noisy “gulbischas”. Here they were usually held on Sennaya Square, on Tsaritsyn Meadow or in Yekateringof. The festive crowd amazed observers with the pomp and diversity of their outfits. This diversity “was generated in particular by the mixture of traditional and new clothes.

LITERATURE

1. L.M. Lyashenko History of Russia XIX century: ed. DROFA, M., 2002
2. Eroshkin E.P. History of state institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. Ed. 2nd., -M., 1976. 346 p.
3. History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the 19th century Course of lectures. Part 1. Ed. Academician Lichman B.V. Ural State those. un - t, Ekaterinburg, 1995.
4. Klyuchevsky V. O. Op. in 9 volumes. M., 1989. T. V.
5. Poznansky V.V. Essay on the formation of Russian national culture. First half of the 19th century M., 1975.
6. Shepelev L.E. The hat must have galloon // Rodina. 1996. No. 7. pp. 49-52.
7. Troitsky S.M. Russian absolutism and the nobility in the 18th-19th centuries. Formation of bureaucracy, M., 1974.

Life and housing of the main part of the Russian population in the first half XIX centuries retained the features of past times. Both in the countryside and in most cities, wood remained the main building material. Depending on the wealth of the owners, the houses were decorated with carvings, had drainpipes, shutters, etc.

The city houses of the nobility and rich merchants were more like palaces: they were built mainly of stone, decorated not only with columns, but also with sculptures and stucco bas-reliefs.

Class differences were most clearly manifested in clothing. The bulk of the country's population was committed to old patterns of clothing. Depending on their wealth, working people, small and middle philistines wore urban costume, which was a type of pan-European costume with features of Russian peasant costume. The main footwear was boots.

Peasants wore shirts and trousers as both everyday and weekend wear. In winter they wore sheepskin coats and sheepskin coats, long sheepskin coats belted with bright sashes. The hats were mostly made of felted wool.

Since ancient times, our ancestors have used a rich range of plant and animal foods. The main product was rye bread. Porridge and jelly were made from millet, peas, buckwheat, and oats. They ate a lot of vegetables - cabbage, turnips, carrots, cucumbers, radishes, beets, onions, garlic, and potatoes became increasingly common. Meat was a rare product on the tables of the poor. As a rule, it was only eaten at Christmas and Easter. But the fish was more accessible. The main drinks were bread and beet kvass, beer, and sbiten.

In cities, taverns and buffets opened in large numbers for those who could not dine at home.

The only things common to the entire population were church holidays, with their rites and traditions being the same for each. Fairs were usually timed to coincide with church holidays, accompanied by festivities, entertainment, choral singing and round dances.

Patronal feasts were also solemnly celebrated in honor of the saint, after whom the local church was named. Working people whiled away their short leisure time mainly in cheap taverns.

The family united, as a rule, representatives of two generations - parents and their children. Such a family usually represented a large group. Often there were 7-9 children in a family. If more than half of the children were boys, then such families were not considered poor. On the contrary, they were quite “strong”, since they had many workers.

Among the main family rituals are baptism, wedding, and funeral. Boys usually got married at the age of 24-25, and girls at the age of 18-22.