Eurasia geographical position is a general characteristic of nature. Eurasia

I . Block goal setting.

Theme of the lesson: “Diversity of the nature of Eurasia”

The purpose of the lesson: to acquaint students with the peculiarities of nature and the typical representatives of the plant and animal world of Eurasia;to deepen the concept of a natural area.

Planned result:   Mapping "Endemics of Eurasia", the selection of indicators of the characteristics of the natural zone, originality of the plant and animal world of the continent.

knowledge : list of natural areas of Eurasia, the characteristic their main indicators

skills : the organization of their work in a strictly allotted time; map mapping, working with contour maps

skills : work with thematic maps, the characteristics of geographical objects

Personality forming focus of the lesson:

personal: organization of purposeful cognitive activity.

communicative: the ability to work in a micro group, organize academic cooperation and joint activities, respect the other person, listen to his opinion;

the formation of communicative competences in communication and presentation

information;

the ability to freely respond at the board (to the public).

regulatory: ability to plan ways to achieve the goal, to correlate their actions in the process of achieving the result.

cognitive: identifying and formulating a cognitive goal, structuring knowledge, choosing effective ways to solve problems, analyzing and work with cartographic material;

reflection.

ІІ. Tool block.

Tasks of the lesson:

Educational: consideration of the general features of the distribution of natural areas of Eurasia and confirmation of the manifestation of latitudinal zonality; Acquaintance of students with the peculiarities of nature and typical representatives of the plant and animal world of the arctic, subarctic and temperate zones.

Developing: improving the ability to disclose relationships and relationships between the components of the nature of individual zones, drawing up a figurative description of zones, developing monologue speech, working with various sources of information, analyzing and transmitting information.

Educators: the formation of a holistic emotional and sensory perception of the world.

Type of lesson:   problem lesson

Training and metodology complex:

Information sources-textbook 7 cl, EM Domogatskih, N.I. Alekseevsky Geography Continents and Oceans 2 part of the "Russian word"; Atlas of the 7th class "Bustard"

Equipment- computer, multimedia projector, map "Physical Map of the World", presentation "Diversity of the nature of Eurasia"

Didactic support- guidance cards for groups on the characteristics of the natural area.

Organizational structure of the lesson

1 Motivation

Hello guys! I want to begin today's lesson with the statement of the great Russian traveler, Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky, “And life is also beautiful because you can travel.” I invite you to travel. Where are we going? (Eurasia)

See who is in the photo.

The answer is PANDA, a bamboo bear.

The image of the panda became the emblem of the World Wildlife Fund WWF - an international organization dedicated to the protection of rare and endangered animals. Panda - lives only on the mainland of Eurasia.

UUD: personal

self determination

2. The definition of goals and objectives of the lesson.

helps learn, if necessary, to formulate the topic and objectives of the lesson, begins the lesson with the question:

What will be the topic of our lesson?

The topic of the lesson is “The Diversity of the Nature of Eurasia”.

What will be the purpose of travel?

To get acquainted with the climatic features of the natural areas of Eurasia, especially the flora and fauna.

Where can this knowledge come in handy? (In the course of studying Geography of Russia. If you are planning to go on a trip. See a panda or aurochs. The famous traveler Fedor Konyukhov.)

Let's clarify the travel route.

To do this, turn to the atlas. Which card we need.

C.40-41. Map “Natural zones” What natural zones of Eurasia should we visit?Everything. This will be the uniqueness of the distribution of natural areas of Eurasia.

What prevents travelers from building direct routes? (Rivers)

3. Check d / s

Let's determine which rivers can prevent us from traveling?

We will work according to the following plan.

Work plan

1. What hinders travelers. Check d / s.

2. Natural areas of the mainland. Work with the table.

3. Mark the natural area on the map.

4. Endemics of Eurasia. Message.

8. D / C p.53, prepare a report on the largest representatives of the animal world of Eurasia.

Checking d / s with the help of multimedia textbook on geography for pupils of the 7th grade of general educational institutions “Geography. Continents and Oceans

Simultaneously conversation.

To what oceans are the basins of the Eurasia River?

Pupils' activities - formulate the topic of the lesson, set objectives for achieving the result, answering the teacher's questions if necessary

Organization form: frontal

UUD: personal

formation of learning motivation

regulatory

goal setting

communicative

4. Actualization of supporting knowledge.

What is called a natural area?part of the geographic shell of the earth and , having the characteristic components of its natural components and processes.

Define the concept - latitudinal zonality.   interdependent set of climate, soil and vegetation, which varies depending on the latitudinal distribution of solar energy and the transfer of air masses on the globe.

To give a definition of the concept - high-altitude zoneregular change of natural conditions, natural zones and landscapes in the mountains with increasing altitude

- What is the reason for the change of natural zones on the continents? (climatic zones)

The activities of students, discuss the concepts necessary to study the material: natural areas, latitudinal zonality , altitude zone;

together with the teacher, make a plan of the characteristics of the natural area according to the indicators

Organization form: frontal

UUD: Regulatory

planning

communicative

the ability to accurately express your thoughts

cognitive

posing questions, formulating goals

brain teaser

Problematic issue .

You have repeatedly heard such a thing as "lungs of the planet." This expression is used in relation to individual natural areas of the Earth. What do you think, what natural zones could claim such a title? On the mainland of Eurasia, there are several types of forests. What kind? Determine the map of natural areas.

Now more and more scientists are saying that "the lungs of the planets are sick." What do you think is the reason for this statement?

Can you explain this statement?

Fizminutka

And seagulls circling over the sea,
Fly behind them together.
Spray foam, surf noise,
And over the sea - we are with you!

(waving their hands)

We are now sailing the sea
And frolic in the open.
Fun rake
And catch up with dolphins.

(swimming arm movements)

Look: seagulls matter
They walk on the sea beach.

(walking in place)

Sit the children on the sand,
We continue our lesson. [

Like North America, Eurasia is also most extended from west to east in temperate latitudes. Work with the atlas and the textbook. Enter the information in the table.

You have on the table a map on which you must select your natural zone, a table to fill in the animal and plant world and identify the endemics of this natural zone.

(slide 1.2) The great extent of Eurasia from north to south and from west to east, significant climatic differences within the continent, the alternation of mountain systems and lowlands contribute to the successive change of geographic zones from north to south and the rapid change of natural zones within geographic zones.

On the mainland there are seven geographical zones:

Arctic belt

Subarctic belt

Temperate zone

Subtropical belt

Tropical Belt

Subequatorial belt

Equatorial belt

Each geographic zone is characterized by its own natural features. In more detail we will focus on the distinctive features of each natural area.

5. Primary check of understanding and primary binding

Student activities - coordinating group presentations, asking questions if necessary

they give a description of the natural zone by answering at the blackboard (since the groups are not large, the task is to divide the presentation of the natural zones so that all members of the micro group speak);

each group presents a characteristic of its natural area, shows its location on the map projected on the board (after that, the boundaries appear on the map), and tells the plan

according to the results of submission of information from representatives of other groups, fill out a contour map

Organization form: frontal, group , individual

UUD: Regulatory

control, correction, evaluation

communicative

presenting information verbally

cognitive

knowledge structuring

analysis and work with cartographic material

1.group   In the arctic and the subarctic belts of Eurasia distinguish three natural zones:

Arctic Desert Area,

Tundra zone

Forest tundra zone(slide 3-7)   student performances.

Endemic message   Tundra LEMMINGS , a group of mammals of the vole subfamily, includes four genera and about 20 species (including common, ungulates, forest lemmings). The most common genus of common lemming with subspecies - Norwegian and Siberian. Body length 15 cm, tail up to 2 cm. Biologically, all forms of common lemmings are similar. The only exception is the Amur form, which lives in unusual conditions for other forms of the taiga zone.

Signs: The length of the body is 13-15 cm, the tail is short, 1.5-2 cm long, weight is 35-100 g. It resembles a vole in shape, but differs from it in colorful fur, yellow-brown with black spotted pattern. Cubs are lighter than adults. Sounds; squeak, yelp or grunt.

Musk ox - This is a rather large ungulate, leading a herd way of life, it lives in the territory of the Far North, it is the hairy beast on Earth. It received its strange name for its large size and "lamb" head, which is decorated with "tight" sitting extended horns. The hair of the musk ox is outstanding - thick, most of it is a thin undercoat, it forms under the cover of guard hairs, it resembles soft felt. On the belly and throat, the guard hair is half a meter long, in some individuals it reaches up to 90 cm and hangs almost to the ground. They are the best protection against frost, which is in those regions where the musk ox lives. Musk oxen tolerate frost and strong winds well.

2 group   taiga, mixed and deciduous forests(slide 8-15)   student performances.

Taiga Wolverine   - the largest terrestrial species of the Mustelidae. It is a stocky and muscular predator that looks more like a small bear than other members of its family.

Wolverine has short legs with large feet, making it easy to move around in the snow. The head is wide and round, the muzzle is elongated. The eyes are small, the ears are short and round. The back, thanks to the longer hind limbs, is arched. Teeth powerful, with sharp edges. The upper molars at the end of the dentition are rotated by 90 degrees relative to the inside of the mouth, which allows the wolverine to tear the meat from the frozen carrion. Claws sharp, hooked. Like many other marten, has a powerful smell of anal glands. Scent and hearing are well developed. Eyesight is less developed.

Adult wolverine reaches the size of an average dog. The average length is 65-105 cm, the tail length is 17-26 cm, and the weight ranges from 9 to 25 kg, although sometimes the weight of males reaches 32 kg. Height at withers is from 30 to 45 cm.

Mixed forests14.Amur tiger

Broadleaf Bison . This wild bull, whose weight reaches a ton, has always been a welcome trophy for humans. The extermination of the species became rampant after the appearance of firearms. Since the end of XVIII century. The bison were kept only in the places of the tsar's hunting: 500-700 animals in Belovezhskaya Pushcha and the same in the Caucasus.

Muskrat - animal of the order of insectivores. This species is a narrow endemic of Eastern Europe, its range covers mainly the basins of the Urals, Volga, Don and Dnieper. Desman leads a semi-aquatic lifestyle, preferring flood-plain old ladies, lakes and small forest streams with a quiet current. She settles in burrows and hunts mollusks and other aquatic invertebrates.
Because of the beautiful silky fur, the desman was subjected to mass extermination.

3 group : Forest-steppe and steppe, semi-desert and desert(slide 16-23)   student performances.

Steppes: Saiga – a small animal with an original appearance. Recognizable it makes a swollen proboscis with congested rounded nostrils.   the winding is a continuation of the nasal cavity, in which cold air warms when running during the winter. The body length of the saiga is 110-140 cm, height at withers is 60-70 cm, weight is 25-40 kg. Coat color in summer is yellowish-red, fur is low and rare. In winter, the saiga has a thick, tall, very light fur. Only males have horns. The horns, yellowish-white, lyre-shaped, reach 30 cm in length and are located almost vertically on the head.

african and Indian elephant, the differences between them are significant.

Deserts   gecko- genus of lizards from the family . Body length up to 8 cm. Fingers long and curved, equipped with claws. Well defined segmentation of the tail. The pupil is vertical, with serrated edges.

4 group The next natural area on our way   - Subtropical and monsoon forests(slide24-30)   student performances.

Panda Monsoon Forest or a bamboo bear is a cute and cute animal that differs from the rest of its fellows in a kind of unusual color. Although not all zoologists attribute the panda to the family of bears. Its length can be up to one and a half meters, and weight - up to one hundred and sixty kilograms. Thick and short legs with sharp, long claws help the bear to climb trees and hold on to the smooth trunks of the bamboo, which he eats.

5 group The next natural area on our way is   Subequatorial and equatorial, (slide 31-34) altitude zone (slide 35-36) students' performances.

Equatorial Forests Orangutans inhabit the thick tropical rain forests of Malaysia and Indonesia. They live singly, so smart and attentive. The whole life of an orangutan takes place on the branches of trees, because of this it falls into the category of tree monkeys. An orangutan can pluck fruit from trees with any limb. Because of the arboreal lifestyle, this animal has very strong and long forelimbs, but the hind limbs are shorter and weaker. In order that the monkey could cling well to the branches, nature gave her long and tenacious fingers. Adults weigh from 50 to 100 kg, and their height reaches a maximum of 150 cm. The female orangutan is much lighter and smaller than the male.

Altitude

Caucasus Mountains Mouflon . The only wild sheep in Europe. The male is easily recognizable by horns, wide at the base and twisted in a spiral. Horns grow at mouflon for life. Mouflon herbivore sometimes gnaws the bark of young trees.

Tibetan Highlands Yak   - a large animal with a long body, relatively short legs, wide, rounded hooves and a heavy, low head. Height at withers to 2 m, weight in old bulls to tones. The length of the body of an old male to 4.25 m, of which 0.75 m falls on the tail. The length of the female is up to 2.8 m, height is 1.6 m, weight is 325-360 kg.   At the withers of a yak there is a small hump, which makes the back seem sloping. The horns of both sexes are long, but not thick, widely spaced, directed from the base to the sides, and then bent forward and upward; their length is up to 95 cm, and the distance between the ends is 90 cm.

Conclusion: savanna and equatorial forests (everything is plowed up , many large animals are preserved in the reserves: Keoladeo, Rantambor - deer, elephants, hyenas, antelopes, buffaloes, rhinos) about 3 thousand species of palm trees. These forests are called jungles. (Orang, panther, parrots gocutting down ) . The same problem - the destruction of forests. As in the taiga belt.

6.The result of the lesson.

Now you can answer the question

Why do scientists call the lungs of the planet sick?

7. Reflection   (summary of the lesson)

What have you learned in the classroom?

Did you like the lesson?

What a mood you have now, if you raise your hands well and wave to each other.

the teacher declares his marks for presenting the characteristics of natural areas

when placing a mark in the journal, self-analysis of groups with marks put to all members of the group is taken into account

micro teams conduct self-analysis of work - compare their contour maps with the map on the board,

analyze the work of all members of the group, evaluate on a 5-point system the achievement of results

micro-group work

UUD: communicative

the ability to express your thoughts with sufficient accuracy

cognitive

reflection

personal

sense formation

self-esteem

assessment

groups

characteristics of the animal and plant world

Group message

contour map executed

7. Homework . §53.

Square   - 54.9 million km (~ 1/3 of the total land area of ​​the Earth)

Population   - about 4.9 billion inhabitants

  1.1. Europe and Asia

Eurasia is the largest continent of the Earth, consisting of two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. The boundary between them has a conditional meaning and passes the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains, the Emba River, the northern coast of the Caspian Sea and the Kuma-Manych depression. Then Asia and Europe are divided by the Azov and Black Seas. Together with the Eurasian Islands, it covers an area of ​​about 53.4 million km, of which about 2.75 million km are islands.

  1.2. Extreme points

Extreme Mainland points of Eurasia: in the north - cape Chelyuskin,   77 98 "n. In the south - cape Pyai   , 1 56 "с. Ш., In the west - cape Roca   , 9 76 "W. in the east - cape Dezhnev   , 169 64 "w. A number of islands in the southeast of Eurasia are located in the southern hemisphere. Eurasia is washed by such oceans: in the west - the Atlantic, in the north - the Arctic, in the south - Indian, in the east - the Quiet, and their marginal seas. In the south-east, Australian-Asian seas separate Asia from Australia, in the north-east - the Bering Strait from North America, in the south-west - the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean and Red Sea from Africa, with which Eurasia is connected by the Suez Canal.

  1.3. additional information

The continuity of the land mass, the modern tectonic consolidation of the continent, the unity of many climatic processes, the significant commonality of the development of the organic world, the manifestations of natural-historical unity, and the need to take into account the importance of territorial integrity to assess socio-historical phenomena caused the name to unite the entire continent. The concept "Eurasia" introduced by E. Suess in geology and geography turned out to be convenient.

  2. Exploration of the mainland

Asian research begins in the 18th century. Currently, the Northern and Kamchatka expeditions are being organized, during which polar regions are studied. The outstanding geographers O. Humboldt, P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky, N. Przhevalsky, F. Wrangel, K. Arsenyev, V. Obruchev and others studied the natural conditions, made maps to the unexplored corners of Eurasia.

  3. Relief

  3.1. General information

Eurasia has a great variety of relief. On its territory are located the highest mountain systems of the world - the Himalayas. The highest point of the globe is Mount Chomolungma (8850 m). The highlands of Tibet rises 45 km. The lowlands and plateaus are of enormous size, and stretch for thousands of kilometers. 3/4 of the surface of Asia falls on the plateau, highlands and mountain ranges. In Europe, the mountains are smaller, most of them are lowlands. The oldest parts of Eurasia are the Eastern European and Western Plains. They are based on large and old platforms. The Arabian plateau and the Deccan are also of ancient origin. The rift of the earth's crust occupied by the Red Sea, the Arabian Peninsula is separated from Africa. Most of the lowlands is located on the outskirts of the mainland. The Indo-Gangetic and Mesopotamian lowlands formed in the foothill troughs of the earth's crust between the platforms and the folded mountains.

  3.2. Folded mountains

The folded mountains are the mountains, the ascension of which occurred as a result of the fact that the layers of rocks winterized into folds. The main mechanism for the formation of folded mountains is the horizontal compression of the layered strata, although the vertical movements of deep-seated layers can also take part in this. Creased folds are possible if rocks are exposed to compression forces that are sufficiently plastic, which is characteristic of either young, newly formed sedimentary rocks, or strongly heated rocks saturated with liquid and gaseous inclusions. In its pure form, folded mountains are quite rare - as a rule, the formation of folds is accompanied by the appearance of faults. If the displacements along the faults make a significant contribution to the formation of the mountainous terrain, such mountains are called block-folded. An example of the folded mountains are the mountains of the Swiss Jurassic in the Alps, the mountain system Zagros in Iran, some ridges in the Appalachians (North America).

  3.2.1. southern part

The new mountains of the new fold extend into two giant belts of the folded mountains. In the southern part of Eurasia from the Atlantic and almost to the Pacific Ocean stretches the Alpine-Himalayan belt. It includes the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Alps. Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains), the Carpathians, the Caucasus, the Pamir Highlands, the Himalayas. Between the edge ridges lie the highlands, most of all - Iran.

  3.2.2. Pacific Belt

The Pacific Belt of the Folded Mountains begins in Kamchatka and ends on the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The oldest mountains are the Scandinavian Mountains. The age of the Ural Mountains, Altai and Tien Shan, which appeared later, is almost 300 million years. For many millions of years, the ancient and ancient mountains were destroyed by external processes and smoothed out. During subsequent uplifts, they were broken by faults into individual blocks, some of which rose to a considerable height (Altai, Tien Shan). The formation of mountains continues today. = *

  3.3. Glaciers

About 300 million years ago, a huge glacier formed on the territory of Eurasia. The British Isles were completely covered with glacier, it descended in two languages ​​to the East European Plain, reaching the latitude of Dnepropetrovsk; Western lowlands he descended to the sixtieth parallel. In most parts of northern Asia, a cold climate caused the occurrence of permafrost. For the dry and hot deserts of Asia, the characteristic landforms created by wind activity. Huge spaces here are occupied by dunes and dunes.

  3.4. Earthquakes

Most of the earthquakes that accompany the formation of mountain systems occur in the territory of Eurasia in the giant belts of the mountains of new folding. The Pacific seismic belt surrounds the Pacific Ocean. On the territory of the mainland, belongs to this belt, earthquakes occur very often, especially in the Japanese and Philippine islands. The Euro-Asian seismic belt passes through the southern part of Eurasia and coincides with the Alpine-Himalayan fold belt.

  3.5. Volcanoes

There are many active volcanoes on the territory of Eurasia. Especially a lot of them in the Pacific volcanic belt, which is called the Pacific "ring of fire". The highest active volcano of Eurasia is Klyuchevskaya Sopka (56th century Sh. And 161 s. DG.) On the Kamchatka Peninsula (4750 m). There are active volcanoes in the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt. Europe’s highest volcano Etna and the only volcano Vesuvius active on mainland Europe are located in the Mediterranean. The active island-volcano Stromboli is located near the peninsula. There are geysers in Kamchatka and Iceland. =)

  4. Minerals, features of their origin

  4.1. General information

Eurasia is exceptionally rich in a variety of minerals. On its territory there are large deposits of coal, oil, natural gas, significant reserves of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, many places where gold and precious stones are mined. A variety of mineral riches of the continent due to the huge size, complex structure of the earth's crust of Eurasia.

  4.2. Deposits and Pools

  4.2.1. Coal, oil and gas

Coal deposits in Eurasia are located in foothill and intermountain troughs of Paleozoic age (Donetsk basin in Ukraine, Karaganda - in Kazakhstan, Pechora basin - in Russia, Ruhr - in Germany, etc.). In the east of Eurasia, the most coal basins are open within Indian and Chinese platforms. Large brown-coal basins - Kuznetsky and Kansko-Achinsky - in Siberia. Oil and gas fields are concentrated in the troughs of the earth's crust, filled with sedimentary rocks. The two largest petroleum basins of the Earth are in the Mesopotamian lowlands and the West Siberian Plain. There are oil and gas deposits in the Arabian Peninsula and the East European Plain.

  4.2.2. Ore

Most of the deposits of various ores associated with igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the crystalline basement of ancient platforms, as well as where igneous and metamorphic rocks come to the surface in mountain ranges. The iron ores of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA), the Krivoy Rog and Lorraine iron ore pools, the manganese Nikopol pool, the iron ores of Indostan and Northeast China are of world importance. Through Southern China, the Indochina and Melaka peninsulas and the islands of the Malayan archipelago, deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, such as tin and tungsten, form a so-called tin-tungsten belt. In the Asian part of the continent there is gold. In the Urals, there are deposits of non-ferrous metals, in the folded mountains in the north and in the south of Europe there are deposits of polymetals, mercury, aluminum and uranium ores.

  4.2.3. Other deposits

Deposits of rock and potassium salts formed in shallow pools - lakes and shallow seas. The Iranian Highlands is known for its rich reserves of sulfur. In the Ukrainian Carpathian region are unique deposits of native sulfur. On the Indian subcontinent, the island of Sri Lanka are deposits of diamonds, various precious stones. In many places of Eurasia there are deposits of various building materials (marble, granite, etc.). In Asia there are deposits of granite, saltpeter. Bauxite deposits, which are located along the Alps, south of the Carpathians and on the Indochina peninsula, are of sedimentary origin.

  5. Climate

  5.1. General information

On the territory of Eurasia, all types of climates occur on other continents. Svalbard and some islands of the Arctic Ocean are dominated by the arctic climate. In the temperate zone, moderate air masses prevail throughout the year. In the west of the temperate zone of Eurasia, a maritime climate is formed. In winter, temperatures range from 0 C to +6 C. Average summer temperatures are +10 C ... +18 C. Precipitation is up to 1000 mm per year. In the central part of the temperate zone in winter there is a strong cooling of the earth’s surface, and in summer, on the contrary, a strong warming up. Therefore, continental air is formed here. The climate of the Mediterranean is influenced by two different types of air masses, which vary by season. In winter, westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean bring the humid ocean air of temperate latitudes. As a result, winter is warm, rainy and windy. Average temperatures in winter vary from +8 C to +10 C. In the summer, dry tropical air prevails in the Mediterranean. Therefore, summer is hot and dry.

  5.2. Weather in different parts of the year

In winter, in the central part of the subtropical zone, dry weather also predominates, but not as cold as in the temperate zone. In summer, tropical air reigns here, so hot and dry weather sets in. In the east of the temperate and subtropical zones, the climate is formed in summer under the influence of Pacific monsoons, bringing moist sea air, and assholes

  6. Inland waters, their distribution

  6.1. General information

Eurasia has an extremely dense river network. Most major rivers are in Asia. Eurasia is characterized by the largest area of ​​internal flow basins. Differences in the regimes of the rivers of Eurasia due to the diversity of climatic conditions of the continent.

  6.2. Records

The short rivers of the Scandinavian Peninsula and the largest rivers of Eurasia - the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Northern Dvina, Pechora - flow into the Arctic Ocean. Almost all of these rivers is dominated by snow feeding. They freeze for a long time in winter, and in spring they spill heavily. The longest of them is Lena (4,400 km), and the deepest is the Yenisei. For 5-6 months the rivers of the far north freeze - Yana, Indigirka, Kolyma. Lake Baikal, the deepest lake in the world (1620 m), belongs to the Arctic Ocean basin.

  6.3. Atlantic Ocean Basin

The basin of the Atlantic Ocean includes the rivers of Western, Southern and partly Eastern Europe. The rivers of Western and Southern Europe mainly begin in the mountains. In the west of Europe a dense network of rivers and many fresh lakes are developed. In the extreme west, in the area of ​​maritime climate, rivers do not freeze and are full-flowing throughout the year. The largest of them - Sena. The rivers freezing for a short time include the Vistula, Oder, Elba. The largest rivers in the Atlantic basin are the Danube, the Rhine, and the Dnieper.

Introduction

1.2 Inland waters of Eurasia

1.3 Climate of Eurasia

2. Natural characteristics of Eurasia

2.1 Flora of Eurasia

2.2 Animal world of Eurasia

Conclusion

Bibliography

Applications

Introduction

Eurasia is the largest and most contrasting in terms of natural conditions continent of the Earth. More than 1/3 of the land area of ​​the planet falls on Eurasia; its area, together with the adjacent islands, is about 54 million km 2. At the same time, 4/5 of them falls on Asia and 1/5 part - on Europe - two parts of the world, which are traditionally distinguished as part of Eurasia. The names of these parts of the world originated in ancient times and mean in the translation from the language of the Assyrians: "ereb   - "west, sunset" and "asu" - "east, sunrise (Sun).

The nature of Eurasia is studied more fully than other continents. This is especially true of the most populated regions of Europe and Asia. Many natural phenomena and processes have been studied by scientists on the example of the territories of the Eurasian continent.

With the enormous size of Eurasia, its internal parts are thousands of kilometers away from the seas and oceans, which enhances the natural contrasts within the continent. From west to east, the character of its surface also changes. In place of the dissected relief of foreign Europe come the vast expanses of the East European Plain, the West Siberian and Turan Lowlands and the Central Siberian Plateau. The belt of mountain structures, stretching across the entire southern part of Eurasia from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, in the direction from west to east is becoming more powerful and high, reaching the greatest heights on Earth within the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau.

In the west and south of Eurasia, the sublatitudinal strike of the main orographic elements prevails, in the middle part of the continent and, especially, in the east, it is replaced by a submeridional one. Thus, the relief does not prevent the penetration of the Atlantic and Arctic Ocean deep into the continent, while the internal parts of Eurasia are separated from the influence of the Pacific and Indian oceans by mountain uplifts and it appears only on its margins.

The huge size of Eurasia, the complexity of its structure and topography, the position between the circumpolar and equatorial latitudes, the varying degree of impact of the oceans create a large variety of zonal features of nature and significant differences in the manifestation of the zonal structure of the biosphere. On the mainland there are barren arctic deserts and humid equatorial forests; vast areas are occupied by drainless areas where there is almost no rain, and in equally large areas the population suffers from an excess of moisture. Eurasia is characterized by the largest contrasts of temperature and altitude on Earth. Within its borders are the highest mountain peak and the deepest dry depression of the globe. The unique size of Eurasia and the complexity of natural conditions is its main feature, originality, the main difference from other continents. This makes studying it difficult, but at the same time very interesting.

The Aim of the course work - to study the geography of Eurasia.

Tasks of work:

to study the geographical characteristics of Eurasia: the history of education, terrain features, geological structure;

study hydrographic and climatic features;

explore the basic forms of the animal and plant world.

1. Physical geography of Eurasia

1.1 Physical and geographical position and the main forms of relief of Eurasia

The complex history of the formation of the Eurasian continent is reflected in all components of its nature. But it is most clearly manifested in the peculiarities of the structure of the surface, which is distinguished by complexity, diversity and unique contrasts on Earth. The spread of all types of tectonic structures known on Earth and all types of relief is characteristic of Eurasia.

The basis of the greatest continent of the Earth was the Eurasian continental plate, the most ancient parts of which are the platforms (cratons) East European (Russian) and Siberian. Their central parts (cores), composed of Precambrian rocks, protrude to the surface in the form of crystalline (basement) massifs, plains and plateaus, broken by tectonic faults. This type of relief is characteristic of the plains and hills of the Baltic Shield in Sweden, Finland and north-west Russia.

The history of the development and formation of Eurasia is closely connected with the history of another continent in the northern hemisphere - North America. On a certain segment of the history of the Earth, Eurasia and North America were a single whole, like the continents of the southern hemisphere.

The basis of modern Eurasia is made up of relatively stable ancient cores formed by the end of Precambrian - the Eastern European, Siberian and Chinese platforms separated from each other (and from the North American platform) by ancient oceans. The gradual closure of these oceans at the end of the Proterozoic, the Lower and Upper Paleozoic, led to an increase in land and the formation of a huge land mass that, together with the continents of the southern hemisphere, formed a single great continent of the Earth, Pangea, with the continents of the southern hemisphere. Obviously, by that time there already existed the basin of the Pacific Ocean, the bottom of which forms the bark of the ocean type.

At the end of the Proterozoic, the land south of the Siberian Platform increased significantly. Mountain-building processes reached a particularly large scale at the end of the Silurian, when the European and North American platforms were connected and the North Atlantic continent was formed. Folded structures also originated in the east. Angarida appeared, including the Siberian platform and the newly formed mountain structures. Tectonic activity was accompanied by the formation of intrusions and ore. The consequence of this orogenic cycle was the wide development of continental conditions and sharply dissected relief. Platforms and newly formed mountain structures experienced uplifts accompanied by intense effusive activity. At the foot of the mountain structures laid down the troughs, filled with powerful strata of sediment, in which the formation of oil, bauxite, iron ore.

In the second half of the Carboniferous and in Perm, a new tectonic cycle was noted, which was of great importance for Eurasia. As a result of intensive movements that continued until the beginning of the Triassic period, a mountainous land formed between the European and Siberian platforms, as well as in the greater southern part of modern Eurasia. As a result, more and more ancient structures were welded together. A huge continent of Pangea was formed, which included most of modern Eurasia and North America, as well as the southern continents. This tectonic cycle was very long; it broke up into several phases that did not coincide in time and in space. In earlier phases, mountain structures were formed in the south of foreign Europe and in Central Asia. In this case, transgressions took place on the European platform and in the area of ​​distribution of the aligned structures of the Lower Paleozoic age. In the foothill troughs that were laid at the foot of the rising mountains, plant residues accumulated, giving rise to deposits of coal. Further development of mountain building was accompanied by the introduction of powerful intrusions and ore. In the Permian, the manifestation of mountain-building processes occurred simultaneously with the general uplift of the platforms, and by the end of the Permian the Eurasian part of Pangea was a land within which the previously formed mountains were destroyed and terrigenous precipitation accumulated in hot, arid, and then more droughty climates. Triassic was characterized by dominance of continental conditions and weak tectonic activity.

In the Triassic, the disintegration of Pangea and the formation of modern continents and oceans began. The first stage was the discovery of Tethys (first in the form of a bay of an already existing Pacific Ocean), which separated the northern part of Pangea from the south in the east. Gradually evolving to the west and expanding, Tethys in the Jurassic disunited Pangea into Laurasia and Gondwan. At the same time, Laurasia maintained unity, and within Gondwana, the formation of the basin of the western Indian Ocean began, dividing the southern pra-mainland into two parts - the western and the eastern.

Much of Laurasia covered the transgressions, which spread to the European platform and to the region of the Upper Paleozoic structures of Europe. During the Jurassic, a hot, humid climate prevailed in Laurasia. On the land covered by the seas and lakes, woody vegetation dominated by ancient gymnosperms dominated. Coal-bearing strata were formed in numerous lake hollows, mainly in the Asian part of Laurasia, and sedimentary iron ores in western Europe.

The first manifestations of orogenesis in the Mediterranean occur in the Jurassic, and the main stages in the Cenozoic era.

The Cretaceous began the formation of the Atlantic Ocean (its southern and then the middle part), as a result of which North America became isolated from Eurasia, and the western (Caribbean) part of the Tethys separated from the eastern (Mediterranean). In the northern part, the integrity of Laurasia remained until Cenozoic.

In the Cretaceous, there were important changes in the composition of the organic world, especially the flora of Eurasia. Along with the ancient gymnosperms and ferns, which spread in the Paleozoic, angiosperms, which formed the basis of modern flora, develop. The appearance of the first birds and mammals (marsupials), as well as the development of fish, is noteworthy in the animal world. Birds and mammals have replaced the large reptiles.

The final design of the contours of the continent, the creation of its current topography, the formation of the organic world in a climate close to modern, occurred during the Cenozoic era, so its history should be considered in more detail.

By the beginning of the Cenozoic, a single consolidated land existed in the place of the greater northern part of modern Eurasia. It consisted of ancient nuclei, which were interconnected by structures of Baikal, Caledonian, and Hercynian age, aligned and greatly modified by subsequent processes. In the east and southeast of Eurasia, the Mesozoic mountain structures were attached to more ancient structures. In the west, this complexly constructed land separated from North America by the depression of the North Atlantic that had already emerged by that time. In the south and southeast, it was limited by the somewhat reduced Tethys. He separated Eurasia from the parts of the split Gondwana that existed to the south and southwest - the African-Arabian, Hindustan and Australian platforms, and in the east freely connected with the Pacific Ocean.

Regression of the seas, which began in the Cretaceous, continued at the beginning of the Paleogene, but in the middle of the period it was replaced by a new transgression that covered a large part of Eurasia: the southern part of the East European Plain, the plains of Central Asia and Western Siberia, the plains that divided the Paleozoic mountain uplifts of foreign Of Europe. At the same time, at the end of the Oligocene, tectonic processes began to develop within the Tethys and in the western part of the Pacific Ocean, which continued throughout the Neogene.

However, the nature of the processes in these regions was different. The closure of Tethys, a relic of which is the modern Mediterranean Sea, occurred as a result of the collision of continental plates of Eurasia and Africa and was accompanied by the formation of fractions with the participation of fragments of the oceanic crust. In the east, i.e. along the western marginal part of the Pacific Ocean, the oceanic crust pushed under the continental with the formation of deep-sea trenches, island arcs and volcanic mountains.

The climate and organic world of Eurasia north of the Mediterranean belt in the Cenozoic were different than at the end of the Mesozoic era. In the south, the climate is hot and relatively humid, in the northern regions - moderately warm and also humid. Under such conditions, a rich, predominantly woody angiosperm flora was formed, consisting of many existing genera and families. In the north, it is deciduous forests of oak, beech, walnut, chestnut and coniferous admixture. South were dominated by palm trees, tropical conifers, ferns. Herb plants are not yet widespread. At the same time, the fauna was formed, consisting mainly of mammals, among which the leading role belonged to predators (later extinct) and ungulates. There are also real birds. The flora and fauna of this territory further developed into the modern Holarctic flora and fauna.

To the south of the Mediterranean zone, climatic conditions remained almost unchanged. There, from the Mesozoic, the flora continuously formed, giving rise to the paleotropic flora of Eurasia, and the fauna from which the modern Indo-Malayan fauna was formed. It was characterized by trunks and primates that appeared in the Paleogene. Ocean Tethys served as an obstacle for the exchange of species between these various centers of the formation of the organic world. Later, the role of such obstacles was performed by the mountains that appeared in its place.

As a result of the tectonic activity of the Paleogene period, there was a significant increase in the land area of ​​Eurasia due to the mountain structures that rose within the Mediterranean and Western-Pacific zones. The Sunda Archipelago was connected to the mainland; The Balkan Peninsula was one with Asia Minor, Europe was connected to Africa in the area of ​​the modern Strait of Gibraltar. In the north-west, Eurasia closed again with North America.

In the second half of the Paleogene, differences in the climatic conditions between the north and the south intensified, which affected the organic world. In the southern part of the tropical and subtropical Poltava flora was formed, consisting of palm trees, tree ferns, members of the families of laurel, myrtle, evergreen oaks, tropical pines and other tree species. It corresponded to a hot, not very humid climate. A deciduous Turgai flora of warm and humid temperate climates formed in the north of Eurasia, which consisted mainly of deciduous tree species - chestnut, beech, maple, liquid green, ancient sequoia, cypress marsh, etc. Initially, the boundary between the distribution areas of these floras ran along the line connecting the lower course of the Vistula and the lower course of the Yangtze, i.e. about 50 ° c. sh. in Europe and about 35 ° c. sh. in Asia. As a result of the gradual cooling of the climate, the Poltava flora began to recede and die off, giving way to the Turgai flora spreading to the south and west. In connection with the further cooling from the north, the boreal (coniferous) flora began to spread. In the extreme northeast of the continent, a center of formation of the arctic flora arose.

During the Neogene, mountain building continued in southern Eurasia, which led to the closure of the Tethys and the final design of the mountain belt in southern Europe and Asia. Simultaneously with the growth of geoantiklinalnyh uplifts, in which the previously existing synclinal troughs were involved, the formation of extensive intermountain depressions began, which superimposed on the previously existing structures. The boundaries of these intermountain valleys formed fault lines marked by intense volcanism. On the outskirts of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, on the borders with the platforms, marginal deflections were laid, gradually filling up with molasse-type deposits.

At the end of the Neogene and the beginning of the Quaternary period, the mountain structures within the Alpine-Himalayan belt, as well as outside it, were covered by uplifts. The tectonic activization of the inner regions of Asia was especially strong, it led to the formation of the Himalayas, Tibet, Karakorum and the highest and highest mountain structures of Central Asia - Kunlun, Tien Shan, etc. adjacent to them. The Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Apennines, Andalus mountains, but all of them are almost twice lower than the highest mountains of Asia. The Scandinavian mountains experienced a significant uplift; to a much lesser extent, rejuvenation affected the Upper Paleozoic mountain structures of the middle part of Europe and the Baltic Crystal Shield. The uplifts were combined with the sinking of vast areas and the filling of the foothill troughs. All this led to the final formation of the modern contours of the continent.

The descents that swept the North Atlantic and adjacent areas of the Arctic Ocean finally separated Eurasia from North America and separated Spitsbergen archipelago. At the beginning of the Quaternary period, a group of British Isles separated from the mainland, forming the Strait of Gibraltar and deep depressions of the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin, significant subsidence occurred at the site of the Aegean Sea. The land, which connected the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, was crushed, formed straits between the Aegean and Black seas, as well as the basin of the Sea of ​​Marmara. To the east of Asia, in the area of ​​the island arcs of the Pacific Ocean, depressions have deepened and seismic and volcanic manifestations intensified. To the south-east of the mainland, the land was divided, connecting Asia and Australia, and the Malay Archipelago was formed. At the same time, deep-sea depressions with a subocean-type crust formed within certain inland and marginal seas. Such depressions exist in the Mediterranean, Black, Japan, South China seas and adjacent parts of the Pacific.

The end of the Neogene is also characterized by a large tectonic activity in the area of ​​the African-Arabian platform, the design of the Red Sea rift and, therefore, the separation of Arabia from Africa takes place. Simultaneously with the uplift in the Alpine-Himalayan belt, the Indo-Gangetic and Mesopotamian foothill troughs were filled in and Arabia and Hindustan joined the Eurasian continent.

Neotectonic processes and related changes in the relief and contours of the Eurasian continent led to significant changes in climatic conditions. Already in the second half of the Paleogene in the entire northern part of the continent, a gradual cooling began, which led to the differentiation of the organic world and the increasing differences between the north and south. Cooling was accompanied by the death or retreat to the south of the heat-loving flora and fauna and the gradual introduction of boreal and arctic forms, the desiccation of the inner regions of the continent and the expansion of arid spaces. Rising in the east and especially in the south, the greatest mountain structures separated the inner parts of Eurasia from the humid air currents from the Pacific and Indian oceans. Over the vast expanses of Central Asia, arid and sharply continental conditions spread in which the formation of the corresponding organic world took place: forests and forest animals disappeared, replaced by animals and plants adapted to the dry climate.

Only in the extreme south and southeast of the continent, including the modern islands, climatic conditions did not experience significant changes from the late Mesozoic. The development of the organic world went continuously towards the formation of tropical flora and fauna.

The cooling of the climate in the Pleistocene led to the expansion of the continental ice sheets in the northern part of Eurasia and the glaciation of almost all the mountains of the continent. The most common continental ice coverings received in Europe and Western Siberia. Their advancement was accompanied by the destruction of vegetation cover and the disappearance of the fauna. Along the edge of the glaciers, climate was drying out and the formation of peculiar periglacial landscapes, combining the features of tundra and cold steppes, which turned to typical steppes to the south. Lossies and loesslike rocks formed in these areas, a kind of fauna developed, consisting of extinct species (mammoths, woolly rhinos) or now living in tundra (reindeer, musk oxen, arctic foxes, lemmings), as well as steppe and forest-steppe animals , currently partly extinct (horses, saigas, bison, deer). In the more southerly and inland regions of the continent, which did not undergo glaciation and were directly influenced by ice sheets, periods of wetting (so-called pluvials) were associated with glaciation periods, during which a dense network of rivers and lakes arose and a significant enrichment of the organic world occurred. Remains of Turgai flora found refuge in places where climatic conditions have changed to a lesser extent. Such refugia ("life seekers") were located in the Far East, in the region of the Manchurian-Korean mountains, and in the west, in the Danube basin and in the Atlantic regions of Europe. The more thermophilic Poltava flora has almost completely died out, only some of its elements have survived to the present day in the subtropical flora of Eurasia.

The continental glaciation was multiple, but the relief and stratigraphy of the Quaternary deposits of foreign Europe well preserved traces of maximum, Middle Pleistocene, and last, Upper Pleistocene, glaciation. During the maximum glaciation (250-75 thousand years ago), glaciers spread from two centers - from the Scandinavian Peninsula and from the British Isles. Outside Russia, ice captured the entire north of Europe to the foot of the Carpathians and the mountains of Central Europe. From the lower reaches of the Rhine, the southern boundary of their distribution stretched to the south of the British Isles (the lower reaches of the River Thames). Thus, the ice covered the North Sea and the adjacent waters of the Atlantic Ocean.

The boundary of maximum glaciation is traced by the distribution of boulders and moraine deposits. The last glaciation (70-11 thousand years ago) captured a much smaller area. Its border is marked by a strip of finite-moraine formations that are well expressed in the relief and called the Baltic Ridge.

During the glacial epoch, the level of the oceans decreased, and the land surface increased accordingly. In this regard, the British Isles were repeatedly connected to the mainland, the continental bank of the north of Eurasia was exposed, a bridge between Eurasia and North America arose at the site of the Bering Strait. An exchange of animals between two continents took place on this bridge, and a man came from Asia to North America. The ancestors of modern people, gradually spreading from the southern, intratropical, regions, mastered the Mediterranean and the middle part of Europe, during the interglacial and after the final retreat of the ice, they penetrated to the north of Europe and Asia, and from there to North America. Up to the end of the last glacial period (8-10 thousand years ago), the land was more extensive than it is now and southeast of Asia. On this bridge, species were exchanged with Australia and man was settled in Australia.

In the post-glacial time, there was a general rise in the level of the World Ocean, and in this connection the dimensions and outlines of Eurasia changed somewhat: transgressions in the north and west of the continent led to the formation of the epicontinental seas of the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, the land connections with North America in the northeast and with Australia to the southeast. The size and level of the inland seas, the Baltic and Black seas, were repeatedly changed. There was a separation of the Caspian basin.

The disappearance of ice and the gradual warming of the climate caused the retreat to the north of the representatives of the Arctic flora and fauna, as well as their partial relocation to mountainous areas. From the forest "shelters of life" of the extreme east, heat-loving species settled in more northern areas. The inner parts of the continent, in full accordance with the arid conditions created there, were populated with xerophytes. During the Holocene in Eurasia, changes in climatic conditions occurred more than once, but they were no longer as sharp as during the Ice Age. The most significant were the changes in the second half of the Atlantic period (5-5,5 thousand years ago), when, as a result of the long domination of warm and humid climatic conditions, the deciduous forests advanced 500-800 km to the north compared with their modern distribution. In turn, the "Little Ice Age", which covered from the middle of the XVI century. until the middle of the XIX century. mountainous areas of Europe, led to the widespread decline in the boundaries of high-altitude plant belts.

1.2 Inland waters of Eurasia

On the surface of Eurasia falls about 40 thousand km 3 precipitation, 23.5 thousand km 3   of this amount is spent on evaporation.

Annual stock   from the territory of Eurasia together with the islands is more than 16 thousand km 3i.e. slightly less than half of the total annual flow of all rivers of the Earth. In terms of the drain layer, this is equal to 300 mm, i.e. above the average for the whole earth. By the average height of the runoff layer, Eurasia is inferior to South and North America. However, these average values ​​do not fully reflect the peculiarities of the distribution of inland waters within the limits of the greatest continent of the Earth.

Significant differences in structure and topography, climatic contrasts and the associated precipitation irregularity and uneven evaporation create large the differences   in the distribution of both surface and groundwater within the continent. This is clearly seen on the map of the annual flow of rivers in millimeters of the layer (Appendix 1).

Maximum runoff indicators (over 1500 mm) are characteristic of the subequatorial and equatorial belts, especially for the islands of the Sunda archipelago, as well as for the west of Indochina and Hindustan, for the central part of the Himalayas. In other zones, such high amounts of runoff are characteristic of only a few areas of the Japanese islands, the Alps and the Scandinavian highlands. Significant spaces in these regions have an annual flow of less than 1500 mm (but not less than 600). In most parts of Europe, in North and East Asia, the drainage layer ranges from 200 to 600 mm per year. For relatively small spaces of the Iberian Peninsula, the Danube Plains, the middle part of the East European Plain, the flow is less than 200 mm per year, i.e. slightly less than the average for all land. The vast territories of Central and Central Asia, the Lower Indus Basin, the Iranian Highlands and the Arabian Peninsula have the magnitude of the flow less than 50 mm per year, and in many areas the height of the layer does not exceed 15 mm. These figures to a certain extent reflect differences in the density and nature of the surface water network of different parts of the continent.

The territory of Eurasia belongs pools   Atlantic, Arctic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The peripheral parts of the mainland, especially the west, east and southeast, have a dense water network, which includes the largest river systems. Inland and southwestern regions are almost devoid of surface water and do not have runoff into the ocean. Inland runoff (including the Caspian Sea basin) accounts for more than 30% of the total area of ​​Eurasia.

Such uneven distribution of surface waters depends not only from modern natural conditions, but also on the peculiarities of the development of the continent. Obviously, to the powerful uplifts that led to the formation of the highest mountain ranges in the southern part of the continent, the climatic conditions of the inner parts of Eurasia, although they were characterized by more dryness than the climates of its margins, were not as arid as they are today. Therefore, in the Cenozoic in the central part of the continent there was a developed network of rivers and lakes, the flow of which was directed to the north, east and south. The tectonic movements, which in the marginal parts of the orogenic belt were wider than in inland areas, led to the latter being protected from the influence of the oceans. The associated drying of climate has led to a decrease and disorganization of surface runoff and the formation of vast practically non-drainage areas in the inner parts of the Eurasian continent (Iranian Highlands, Tibet, China's highlands, Mongolia, etc.).

The most powerful river arteries, laid down before the high ridges were raised, retained their original direction, cutting these ridges through deep epigenetic valleys.

In the northern regions, especially in the northwest of the mainland, a large influence on the formation of the water network had glaciation.

Thus, within the limits of the huge Eurasian land, depending on the history of development and modern relief, as well as on climatic features, various regional types of water network and river regimes have developed. Further they will be considered for the foreign part of Eurasia.

North Europe   relatively recently released from the cover of ice, and the main feature of the water network is its morphological youth. The valleys of rivers and lakes in the north of Europe in most cases are tectonic fissures processed by a glacier. The network of rivers and lakes is very dense, especially the many lakes, numbering tens of thousands. Their sizes are different, the outlines are whimsical; Most of the lakes are extended from the northwest to the southeast, respectively, to the main direction of tectonic lines and the movement of the glacier.

Rivers are usually short and often serve as channels between lakes. The valleys of the largest rivers have numerous lake-like expansions and unworked longitudinal profiles with numerous rapids, which were formed when the rivers crossed the projections of hard rocks. Most of the rivers are abundant throughout the year, although rainfall is small. This is due to weak evaporation and the fact that rivers receive additional power from lakes, swamps and at the expense of groundwater. The rivers of northern Europe (Oulujoki, Kemijoki, Ongermanelven, etc.) have large reserves of hydropower, which is widely used in Finland, Sweden and other countries. Most rivers have no navigational value, but in the past they were widely used to float wood.

On the western edge of Europe   The relief is dominated by hilly plains, plateaus and low mountain ranges, not covered by continental ice. Rivers flow in wide terraced valleys and form branched systems. The mouths of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean and its seas, under the influence of subsidence and under the influence of tidal waves, are estuaries.

The climate features of Western Europe are reflected in the river mode. Permanent and heavy rainfall, the absence of a frosty period creates exceptional flow uniformity throughout the year. The water level rises in winter due to winter rains. If winter precipitation is especially abundant, there are floods that come gradually and also gradually stop. An example is the floods of the winter of 2000/2001. and 2004/2005 in France, the UK and other countries. In summertime, there is a slight decrease in the flow of water in rivers, but the period of shallowing, as a rule, is absent.

The uniform flow and lack of ice cover make the rivers of western Europe navigable throughout the year. In the estuaries of many large rivers (the Rhine, the Seine, the Scheldt, the Loire) there are ports that are accessible to ocean-going vessels at high tide. The predominance of the flat terrain in the basins of these rivers facilitates the construction of navigable canals connecting the various river systems.

In the middle of Europe the relief is heavily dissected. Almost all the rivers begin in low mountains and flow over the plains, connecting the interior of Europe with sea basins. The increase in continental climate from west to east is also reflected in the regime of rivers. All rivers freeze in winter for a period of 2-3 weeks to three months. Maximum flow and flood occur in the spring, as they depend on the melting of snow in the mountains. By the end of the summer, due to strong evaporation, there is a period of significant decrease in the water level in the rivers, however, the shallowing is not observed due to the regulatory influence of the lakes.

On the plains of Poland and Germany, the watersheds between river systems are weakly expressed in relief, since in many cases they are crossed by wide troughs of the ancient glacial runoff. This creates favorable conditions for the construction of shipping canals and the creation of large waterways. The rivers of the middle part of Europe (Elbe, Odra, Vistula and their tributaries) are of great transport importance, especially increased due to the creation of artificial waterways that complement the network of natural water arteries. In its upstream, in the mountains, these rivers have large reserves of water energy, which is used by numerous hydroelectric power plants.

In southern Europe and western Asia   The mountainous terrain and subtropical climate with dry summer create unique conditions for the formation of a river network. For rivers, as a rule, a large fall and an undeveloped profile are characteristic. On many of them, especially on the Iberian Peninsula, in the lower reaches there are rapids, which are formed when crossing steep ledges of Meseta.

The water regime of the rivers is characterized by sharp fluctuations in discharge. In winter, during the rains, they overflow with water and carry a large amount of suspended material. In summer, in the period of almost complete absence of precipitation, the rivers become shallow. The difference in water flow between the summer and winter periods can be 1: 100 and even 1: 200 (for example, the Ebro River). The small rivers of the south of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor dry up completely in summer.

Large and small rivers of the eastern and southern margins of Asia have a pronounced monsoon regime with a summer maximum discharge and a strong decline in winter. Sometimes fluctuations of the level reach tens of meters, the minimum and maximum expenses differ hundreds and thousands of times. In many rivers originating in the high mountains, the summer maximum increases due to the melting of snow and ice in the first half of summer. Such rivers often overflow, causing flooding. To combat floods and prevent wanderings of rivers within the lowland plains along their channels, dams are being erected, which, however, do not always reliably protect the surrounding area from spills.

In the northeast of overseas Asia   in conditions of a monsoon climate of temperate latitudes with cold and long winters, rivers freeze over a long period. In spring time they have a small flood due to the melting of snow, and in summer - the main flood associated with monsoon rains. This type of regime is characteristic of the Amur and its tributaries, for the rivers of Northeastern and Northern China, and the north of the peninsula of Korea (Liaohe, Yalujiang, Weihe, and others).

Rivers southeast Asia   also have a distinct monsoon mode with a summer maximum. However, they do not have very strong shallowing during the winter period, since to the south of the Yangtse basin and in the south of the Japanese islands, cyclonic precipitation falls in winter. As an example, the Xijiang River can be called full-flowing throughout the year. The rivers of Southeast Asia are characterized by the autumn flood, which is associated with the passage of typhoons and often takes on the character of a catastrophic disaster.

Rivers of the peninsulas Indochina and Hindustan   due to the sharp contrasts between wet and dry seasons and strong evaporation in the dry season are characterized by particularly strong fluctuations in consumption. During the period of the impact of the equatorial monsoon, they overflow with water, during the winter months they become shallow and sometimes almost dry. The monsoon regime is especially characteristic of the rivers of Hindustan (for example, the Godavari). The rivers of Indochina (the Irrawaddy, Chauphrai, Mekong) begin in the high mountains and have a more uniform regime, although they still have a distinct summer maximum.

A dense river network and a uniform river regime are characteristic of islands. Indonesia   with their typical equatorial climate. The affluent and turbulent rivers of the islands have large reserves of hydropower.

Arid rivers domestic areas of overseas Asia also differ in the features of the regime. Those of them that begin in the high mountains with powerful glaciation and large reserves of snow retain a constant flow of water. Maximum flow occurs in late spring or summer - during periods of intense melting of mountain snow. In desert areas, the waters of these rivers are used for irrigation (for example, the Tarim River in Kashgaria, the rivers of the eastern margin of the Iranian Highlands, etc.).

The rivers, whose sources are located at a low altitude and flow through strongly arid regions, have only occasional rain and snow and rain food. They are very shallow, they are characterized by sharp level fluctuations and dry out for a long time. After rains, rivers often turn into mudflows, carrying mud and stones. This type of watercourse is typical for dry and closed regions of Central Asia, the Near-Asian highlands and the Arabian peninsula.

Many rivers of Eurasia have mainly glacial feeding. The modern glaciation of Eurasia is connected, on the one hand, with the islands of the Arctic and Subarctic, on the other - with the highest mountain systems that receive abundant rainfall. The polar islands are characterized by a cover-type glaciation and a low position of the snow boundary. On Svalbard it passes on average at an altitude of 300 m above sea level. Icing has the character of shields, from which powerful glacial tongues descend into the sea. A large glaciation center is located on the island of Iceland, where the position of the lower boundary of the nival belt varies between 700 and 1000 m. Above the mountain massifs are covered with firn fields from which the glaciers run, feeding many rivers.

In the mountains of Eurasia, the height of the snow boundary rises from north to south and from the marginal parts of the continent to the inner regions. Therefore, large centers of modern glaciation are not only such high mountain systems as the Kunlun, Karakorum, Himalayas, Pamir, Tien Shan, but also much less high, but abundantly moistened mountains of the Atlantic regions. In the Scandinavian mountains, where the height of the snow border varies between 700 and 1900 m, significant glaciation is developed, feeding the dense network of rivers. In the Alps, the snow limit rises to an altitude of 2500-3200 m; This is the largest center of mountain glaciation in Europe with a valley type of glaciers, from which almost all the major European rivers or their tributaries originate (the Rhine, the Rhone, the Po, and the tributaries of the Danube).

Modern glaciation Asia’s mountains, although significant, are still not as large as they could be, judging by their height. The highest mountains are located in the inland regions of the continent, characterized by a sharp continental climate and low amounts of precipitation, so the snowline and the lower ends of the glaciers are at high altitude. The height of the snow border of Karakorum, the Kunlun is 5000-5500 m, the Himalayas - 4500-5000 m. Glaciers do not descend below 4000 m. The length of individual glaciers in Karakorum reaches 60 km, the maximum length of the glaciers of the southern Himalayan slope is 26 km. In the Eastern Tien Shan, the height of the snow border is 3700 m and the length of the largest glacier is 40 km.

Thus, the glacial type of river feeding is characteristic of many regions of Eurasia with different natural conditions. Rivers that feed on water from melting glaciers and snow are of great economic importance. In Europe, they mainly use their energy resources; in the arid regions of Asia, the waters of these rivers are mainly used for irrigation.

The main rivers of Eurasia will be described in the respective regional sections. The largest rivers of the mainland with a variety of power sources and complex regimes, which are of the greatest economic importance and go beyond individual regions, require special consideration.

1.3 Climate of Eurasia

Analysis of meteorological indicators and their changes during the year give an idea of ​​the wide variety of climates within Eurasia. Eurasia lies in all climatic zones of the Northern Hemisphere, and within each zone climatic regions have formed:

Arctic belt. The most northern islands of Eurasia, and in the east and the strip of the continent, adjacent to the Arctic Ocean, are located within the Arctic belt. In the arctic zone, the marine arctic climate of the western European Arctic sector is distinguished: Spitsbergen and small oceanic islands in the western part of the Arctic Ocean. The sea climate of these islands is due to the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current and is characterized by relatively high winter temperatures (from - 16 0From to - 20 0C) and significant annual precipitation (300 mm). The rest of the territory of this belt has a continental arctic climate. Dry, cold arctic air masses prevail here, thanks to which the entire water area of ​​the Arctic Ocean, without coastal waters, is shackled by dense powerful ice throughout the year. The Arctic belt is a supplier of cold air masses to the continent. In all seasons of the year, their movement is directed to the south.

Subarctic belt. It stretches in a narrow strip along the entire continent and includes the island of Iceland, part of Scandinavia, located north of the Arctic Circle, and expanding somewhat in the east, goes to the Bering Strait. The subarctic belt is located between the summer and winter positions of the arctic front and is characterized by the influence of moderate air masses in summer and cold arctic masses in winter. It also has a maritime and continental climate. The first is Iceland and the islands adjacent to the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This type of climate is characterized by relatively mild (-5 0C - 10 0C) cool winter (no more than +10) 0C) summer and from 300 to 700 mm of precipitation falling in all seasons in the form of rain and snow.

Temperate zone.The southern boundary of this belt is determined by the summer position of the front of temperate latitudes and passes from the southern coast of the Bay of Biscay through the middle of the Black and Caspian Seas to the north of the peninsula of Korea and the middle part of Honshu Island.

In this belt, air masses of temperate latitudes dominate throughout the year. On the territory of Western Europe, in the temperate region, there are two subregions - the northern and the southern. The northern subregion includes Fennoscandia and the north of the island of Great Britain (Scotland). The climate is temperate with cool summers. In the southern subregion, the climate is temperate with warm summers. In the northern subregion, two climatic regions are distinguished: an area with a marine (Norwegian) type of climate and an area with a continental (Swedish) type of climate. The first area includes Western Scandinavia and Scotland. The climate of this region is characterized by an abundance of precipitation throughout the year, a short cool summer. It is dominated by constantly cloudy, wet, windy weather. The climate of Swedish - continental formed in continental Scandinavia (Sweden, Finland), characterized by a cold, long winter with a steady snow cover, short cool summer. In the annual distribution of precipitation, the summer maximum is clearly pronounced. Against the background of the continental climate, the climate of the fjelds (flat tops of the Scandinavian mountains) stands out - humid, cold with an average temperature of the summer months less than + 10 ° WITH.

The following climatic regions are distinguished in the southern subregion of the temperate zone of Europe: a region with a maritime climate, which includes pre-Atlantic Europe, an area with a climate transitional from maritime to continental climate of Eastern Europe, and a continental climate. The climate of the Hercynian middle mountains and the highland (Alpine) climate stand out against the background of a transitional climate.

For the maritime climate, mild cold winters are typical (average temperatures of the winter months are positive), moderately warm summers, small annual amplitudes of temperatures, abundant precipitation, and frequent strong winds. This type of climate is Ireland, England, France without the south, west of the German-Polish Plain, west of Jutland. The transitional climate from sea to continental differs by negative average temperatures of two or three winter months, not long, but steady snow cover, relatively hot and humid summers, and distinct transitional (spring, autumn) seasons. This type of climate is represented in the east of the German-Polish Lowland. The continental climate of the Danube Plains is characterized by rather high summer temperatures (+22 0C, +24 0C) with little precipitation. In winter, cold continental air masses from the east and north, which cause a sharp cooling, often invade here.

The climate of medium-altitude mountains is characterized by high humidity relative to the surrounding plains. Western exposure slopes receive more precipitation than the opposite - eastern ones. In the mountains, lower temperatures and snow lasts from three to five months.

The climate of the Alps is characterized by high humidity, the presence of climatic zoning, low temperatures on the mountain tops and, as a result, the presence of snow and mountain glaciers. The rest of Eurasia has a temperate continental climate (Russian Plain), continental (Western, Middle, Eastern Siberia, Central Asia, Central Asia proper) and monsoonal, which cover northeastern China, the Korean Peninsula, the island of Hokkaido and the northern half of Honshu Island . In winter, cold and dry continental air prevails here, which comes from the Central Asian baric center. In summer, it is replaced by warm and humid air, which brings the Pacific monsoon here. The maximum rainfall occurs in the summer - from 60 to 70% per annum. The continental climate is actually Central Asia, in whose territory the center of high pressure is located and the Central Asian anticyclone. Winter is cold and dry, and summer is dry and hot.

Subtropical belt   also crosses Eurasia from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In this belt is located the whole south of western Europe, the Near Asian highlands up to 30 0   with. sh., north of the Arabian Peninsula, Tibet and the Yangtze basin. It is characterized by a change in the types of air masses: in the summer, tropical dry and hot air prevails, in summer - humid air of temperate latitudes. In this zone, the Mediterranean climate stands out, the main features of which are dry and hot summer, mild, wet autumn and winter. It is divided into maritime and continental. The western climate of the peninsulas of the Perineus, Apennine, Balkan peninsulas has a maritime climate, the rest of the European Mediterranean have a continental climate.

In Asia, several types of climate are also distinguished within the subtropical climate zone. In the west (western and southern coasts of Asia Minor and the mountain west of Levant) the climate is Mediterranean with hot and dry summers, warm and humid winters. Winter temperatures range from +10 0C to +12 0From the south, from 2 0C to 3 0From the north. Annual precipitation amounts are 500-600 mm on the plains and up to 3000 mm on the windward slopes of the mountains. The continental climate of this belt is characterized by low annual precipitation (from 400 mm in the Anatolian highlands to 200-100 mm in the Armenian and Iranian highlands), the maximum of which falls in autumn and winter, in hot and dry summer. This type of climate has all the High Asian Uplands to 30. 0   with. w., North Arabia to 30 0 with. sh. without west Levant. Throughout the year, the continental air of temperate latitudes dominates the Near-Asian highlands. In winter, there is a strong cooling of the surface of these highlands. In summer, this air warms up and acquires the properties of continental tropical. Annual temperature amplitudes are high (up to 900 ).

The territory of Tibet stands out in the highland subregion of the subtropical belt, which is characterized by cold winters with little snow and rather cool and dry (in most of the territory of Tibet) in summer. Only in the eastern regions of Tibet, the amount of precipitation, which brings the Pacific monsoon, increases. Maximum of them here in the summer. In general, in Tibet, the relative humidity of the air is very small. The air throughout the year is dry and cold.

In the east, the climate of the Yangtze basin is monsoon and humid. In summer, the Pacific monsoon brings rain, and in winter it rains due to frontal processes. Up to 75% of annual precipitation falls in summer. On the windward slopes falls to 2000 mm, on the plains - from 700 to 900 mm.

Tropical Passat Climate Belt. In this belt is the southern half of Arabia, the south of the Iranian Highlands and the Thar desert. Here throughout the year dominated by continental tropical air. In winter, the weather is dry and warm, and in summer it is dry and hot. Daily temperature amplitudes are large. Precipitation in a larger area falls below 100 mm. Only in the mountains of Yemen from 400 mm to 1000 mm. This is a zone of negligible moisture.

Sub-equatorial belt or otherwise equatorial monsoon climate. On its territory there are the Indian subcontinent without the Thar desert, the island of Ceylon without the south-west, the Indochina peninsula, Southern China, the Philippine islands without the south, Mindanao, the islands of the south-east of the Malay archipelago. In winter, the air is brought continental dry with the trade wind of the northern hemisphere. In the summer - humid equatorial air and monsoon of the Indian Ocean. Winter and spring are dry. The dry season lasts until May-June. Summer and autumn are wet. The hottest time of the year is spring, when the Indus Plain heats up more than the equatorial regions. In April and May temperatures reach 40 0C and even up to 52 0C. On the windward slopes of the Assam Mountains in Cherrakunji, an average of 12,666 mm of precipitation falls annually, and 1,700 mm on the leeward slope of these mountains. But there are areas of this belt that receive only 81 mm per year (headwaters of the Indus).

Equatorial belt. In this zone there is a large part of the Malay Archipelago (without the eastern half of Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands), the Malacca Peninsula, the south-west of Ceylon, and the south of the Philippine Islands. Equatorial air dominates here throughout the year. This belt is characterized by uniform moistening throughout the year with two maxima, heavy rainfall - from 1500 mm to 4000 mm and more (in the mountains), convective rain, slight annual temperature amplitudes (2 0C - 3 0WITH). Average temperatures of the warmest month 27 0C - 28 0C, and the coldest - 25 0C - 26 0C. Precipitation prevails over evaporation. Excessive moisture.

2 . Natural characteristic of Eurasia

2.1 Flora of Eurasia

The position of Eurasia in all climatic zones of the northern hemisphere led to the spread on its territory of all major natural zones of the Earth.

Most zones extend from west to east. Some of them (tundra, taiga) form continuous stripes. But due to the large size of the continent, the diversity of climate and topography, the structure of zonality is very complicated. A variety of forests are located on the western and eastern coasts of the mainland, that is, in areas of the distribution of marine and monsoon climate types. The central parts of Eurasia with a continental climate are treeless zones - steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. In the areas of subequatorial climate in the south of the mainland there are palm savannas. Large areas cover areas of high-altitude zone. The greatest number of altitudes is characteristic of the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

The position of Eurasia within the Holarctic and Paleotropic floristic kingdoms (Appendix 2) reflects the differences in the history of the formation of the flora of the northern and southern parts of the continent: the continuity of development throughout the Cenozoic and the tropical nature of the flora of the southern continent and southeastern islands, on the one hand, and relative youth the flora of the northern part and its complex genesis associated with abrupt changes in climatic conditions, on the other hand.

The Holarctic flora of Eurasia incorporates elements of the ancient heat-loving forest floras, which developed on its territory in the first half of the Cenozoic to a general cooling that led to the formation of the Pleistocene ice sheets.

eurasia natural climate zone

Elements of these floras have been preserved mainly in the two oceanic sectors, the Atlantic and Pacific. For the formation of the flora and the land cover of the inland areas of the continent, cooling and subsequent drying of the climate due to the uplift of the mountain systems in the south of the continent was of great importance.

Due to the abrupt changes in the terrain and climate of the inner regions, the ocean centers of flora formation turned out to be separated from each other by vast expanses of land and during the second half of the Cenozoic developed independently of each other. In the western sector of the continent, the exchange of species with tropical regions of Eurasia and Africa was hampered by the seas, and in its inner parts by vast expanses of desert. In the eastern, near-oceanic sector, there was an exchange of floristic elements between the Holarctic and the Paleotropics. This led to the characteristic species richness of the flora in Eastern Asia, including both boreal and tropical elements.

In view of the enormous size of Eurasia and the large differences in the soils and vegetation of its different regions, it is advisable to consider the peculiarities of the soil and vegetation cover separately for each of the oceanic sectors and for the inner parts of the continent.

We begin with a consideration of the western, Atlantic sector, corresponding mainly to the west of Europe.

On ice-free spaces of the polar archipelago Spitsbergen, arctic tundra is distributed, the vegetation of which consists of moss, lichen and perennial low-growing grasses that do not form a continuous cover: stone shrub, polar poppy, and some cereals.

Typical tundra with dwarf birch trees and berry bushes on weakly podzolic or peat-gley soils are in the north of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland, and to the east - in the north of the European territory of Russia and Siberia. In foreign Europe, the plain typical tundra is not widely spread due to the climate due to the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current. At those latitudes where tundras dominate in Eastern Europe, forest-tundra or even forests are widespread in the west.

Tundras, disappearing on the plains, move to the mountainous regions of Scandinavia and Iceland, where they form a belt of mountain tundras.

For a narrow strip of forest-tundra, groves of warped birch and alder are characteristic, which appear against the background of tundra vegetation, going along the river valleys far to the north. Plain forest-tundra in Western Europe are common in Iceland, Scandinavia and especially Finland.

The most important type of zonal vegetation in the temperate zone of Eurasia is coniferous forests. They occupy large spaces in foreign Europe, on the European territory of Russia and in Siberia. Depending on the origin, geographical location and modern natural conditions, the composition of forests and the types of soils formed under them are different, therefore, we can speak about a single zone of coniferous forests of Eurasia only with a very large generalization.

In foreign Europe, most of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland are covered with coniferous forests. They occupy plains and go to the slopes of the Scandinavian mountains, rising in the north to an altitude of 400-500 m, in the south - about 900 m. A continuous cover of coniferous forests exists in northern Europe approximately to latitude 61 °, and broad-leaved species appear to the south. The main coniferous trees of these forests are European spruce (Picea excelsa), Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), and the closer to the ocean coast, the larger the role in the composition of forests is spruce. In the west, in Norway, it prevails. In the more eastern regions of Sweden, spruce and pine are distributed approximately equally, although they do not form mixed stands, while in Finland dominates pine. This is due to a decrease in precipitation and an increase in continental climate from west to east.

Under coniferous forests, soils of the podzol type are widespread. Depending on temperature, moisture conditions, as well as on the prevalence of certain landforms and the nature of surface sediments, these soils are presented in various ways, but all of them are characterized by low humus content, fragile finely waxy structure, high silica content and very low content of such elements, like phosphorus and calcium, intensely acidic soil solution. Most of Scandinavia and Finland are occupied by typically podzolic soils, among which there are areas of sphagnum or lowland swamps with peaty-humus soils. Swampy forests and forest swamps formed on waterproof crystalline rocks under conditions of excessive moisture, in Fennoscandia, occupy more than 18 million hectares. Gley-podzolic soils predominate in the north. Due to the peculiarities of the chemical composition and structure, they are all infertile and require significant land reclamation work.

To cut down forests and take out wood in the countries of Northern Europe began in the early Middle Ages. At present, forests on the western coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula are almost completely destroyed. They were replaced by meadows and heathlands. The shores of the Bothnian and Finnish bays are also deforested and occupied by cultivated land, which accounts for less than 10% of the territory in Sweden and Finland. In the inland areas, despite long-time logging, forests still cover most of the area (62% in Sweden and almost 70% in Finland), interspersed with lakes and marshes. At the site of cuttings and drained marshes, artificial landings are made, and at the present time, forest areas and timber reserves in the area of ​​coniferous forest distribution do not decrease, but even increase.

As already mentioned, about the 60th parallel to the conifers, deciduous trees (primarily oak) begin to mix, i.e. there is a change of coniferous forests mixed. These forests are distributed mainly in the eastern, more continental regions of foreign Europe and the East European Plain. Spruce-broadleaf forests dominate in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and pine dominates in the east of the Central European Plain (in Poland) instead of spruce.

To the west and south, mixed forests are replaced by deciduous, among which several types can be distinguished depending on the species composition: oak-birch, oak, beech and beech-birch. Broadleaf forests can be considered the dominant type of natural vegetation in foreign Europe. At the basis of their species composition, an important role is played by elements of the ancient Turgai flora that survived the ice cooling in the "shelters of life". Like Turgai, modern deciduous forests of Europe grow in a warm temperate oceanic climate.

Once deciduous forests covered overseas Europe from the British Isles and the Atlantic coast of France to the borders of Russia. They were spread not only in the lowlands, but rose along the mountain slopes up to a height of several hundred meters above sea level, giving way to high-altitude mixed and coniferous forests. Oak-dominated broad-leaved forests were spread throughout Britain and western France, beech and oak-beech occupied the north of France, the Rhineland, Jutland, the south of Scandinavia and the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. Their main forest forming species - forest, or European, beech (Fagus sylvatica) - tree of oceanic climate, does not tolerate sharp fluctuations in temperature, severe frosts, and dryness. To the east it does not extend farther than the lower Vistula and the Carpathians. Oak grows well in both western and eastern Europe. Dark, shady, without undergrowth and grass cover beech forests prefer the northern, more humid, mountain slopes, while on the sunny slopes of the southern or eastern exposure dominate bright oak groves with an admixture of other hardwoods, with lush bushes and rich grass.

The climatic conditions of the southern temperate zone in the Atlantic regions of foreign Europe favor the decomposition of fallen leaves and grass cover and the activity of microorganisms. The parent rocks for the soil are loam, rich in carbonate compounds. This contributes to the formation of more fertile soils than under coniferous forests, rich in humus and calcium compounds. For areas adjacent to the North and Baltic Seas, characterized by the spread of sod-podzolic soils, and to the south and west - brown forest soils containing up to 6% of humus, having a good structure, close to a neutral reaction and with significant fertility.

The areas of foreign Europe, occupied by broad-leaved and mixed forests with sod-podzolic and brown forest soils, have long been densely populated, with developed agriculture and cattle breeding. At the same time, these are areas of developed industry - a large consumer of wood. The first period of significant forest reduction refers to the Middle Ages. Large areas of land plowed up, part of the forest was destroyed by cattle. Deforestation spread from west to east. Already in the 16th century, when it took an especially large amount of wood for the metallurgy and shipbuilding that began to develop, there was a shortage of wood. The industrial revolution of the XVIII-XIX centuries. led to a real crisis in the forestry of foreign Europe. Massive planting of conifers, especially spruce, quickly producing good industrial wood, helped to solve the problem.

Now in the temperate zone of foreign Europe, forests cover about a third of the surface, and they are very different from the primary ones. A significant part of modern deciduous forests is a low-growing secondary shoots that have arisen at the site of the destroyed high-growth forests. Most of the forested areas are occupied by artificial plantations, and they are dominated by conifers (spruce, fir, pine, pine maritime, etc.). Non-compliance of their ecological requirements with growing conditions worsens the condition of forests, makes them more susceptible to the destructive effects of pests and diseases, natural disasters (hurricanes, snowfalls, etc.) and anthropogenic air and water pollution. In most parts of Central Europe, about a quarter of tree stands are damaged, and in some countries (Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia), the proportion of damaged and dead forests ranges from 40 to 60% of their total area (Appendix 3).

At the same time, the presence of serious environmental problems in the densely populated territory of Europe is constantly increasing the importance of the conservation functions of forests - water and soil protection, sanitary and hygienic, recreational.

The most forested at present are areas with a predominance of mountainous relief between the middle course of the Rhine and the border of Russia. Mostly woodedness makes up to 30 and even 50%. Separate areas of indigenous deciduous forests have been preserved here, taken under protection at the end of the 19th century. There are large tracts of artificial plantations in the south-west of France, in Landach, where planting pine on an area of ​​more than 1 million hectares made it possible to fix the moving sands of the coastal lowland and increase the supply of wood to the domestic market of the country. The most impoverished forests are the British Isles, northwest France, Jutland. The degree of afforestation there is significantly less than 10%. The shores of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, which are traditionally treeless due to strong winds, excessive humidity, acidity or soil salinity, or have long been deforested, are covered with moorlands.

In the more eastern regions of Eurasia, deciduous forests are replaced by forest-steppes and steppes. Steppe was widely developed in the interior of Eurasia in a continental climate and insufficient moisture. In foreign Europe, the original steppe and forest-steppe existed only on the alluvial plains of the middle and lower Danube with a temperate continental climate and moderate moisture.

Soils are chernozems of various types. The most fertile typical black soils with a humus content of more than 6% are characteristic of the Lower Danube Plain within Romania. To the south, in northern Bulgaria, they are replaced by low-humus southern black soil. Leached chernozems with a humus content of 3–6% and significantly saline are common in the Middle Danube lowland. In all these areas, in the past, meadow steppes were spread with separate areas of deciduous forests. High soil fertility and favorable climatic conditions contributed to the development of agriculture, horticulture and viticulture. At present, cultivated lands and artificial trees from oak, poplar and acacia (Robinia pseudacacia) dominate on the plains of the Danube. Due to special land reclamation and agrotechnical measures, up to 70% of the land fund is involved in agricultural production.

For the western, Atlantic, sector of the subtropical belt on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea with warm, wet winters and dry summers, special types of soil and vegetation are characteristic. The floral composition of Mediterranean vegetation, in addition to modern conditions, is also determined by the presence of ancient tropical elements, both evergreen and deciduous. Mostly Mediterranean flora developed in the Neogene, but then somewhat transformed under the influence of climate change during the Pleistocene. In this regard, the Mediterranean flora is characterized by a great complexity of the species composition (Appendix 4).

Modern climatic conditions (lack of moisture during the period of the most intense solar radiation) contributed to the development in plants of a whole range of adaptive characteristics that reduce evaporation and compensate for lack of moisture: crust bruising, hairiness, formation of small thick leathery leaves, thorns and spines, excretion of resinous and ethereal substances, creating a protective cloud around the plant, etc. At the same time, a warm, frost-free and wet winter allows trees and shrubs to keep leaves throughout the year.

The most typical forest formations of the shores of the Mediterranean Sea are sparse forests of various evergreen oaks: stone (Quercus ilex), cork (Quercus suber), common in the western part, valonous (Quercus aeguilops); laurel of noble (Laurus nobilis), Mediterranean pine pine with umbrella-shaped crown (Pinus pinea) or from tree junipers. Thickets of oleanders, brightly blossoming in spring, are characteristic of river valleys.

Under the Mediterranean vegetation, very peculiar soils are formed, which form in conditions of variable moistening. Particularly characteristic are dark-colored brown soils with a pronounced humus horizon, with a humus content of up to 4-7% and a large amount of calcium. On the weathering crust of limestone (terra ross), red soil is formed. Both are fertile and, with irrigation, are favorable for the cultivation of many subtropical and temperate cultures. Evergreen forests and subtropical soils are limited in their distribution by coastal areas and heights of no more than 300-400 m in the north and 1000 m in the south. Above the natural vegetation cover is characterized by deciduous and mixed forests on mountain burozems.

The shores of the Mediterranean, which became the cradle of ancient civilizations with high development of agriculture, cattle breeding and navigation, largely lost their natural vegetation before the beginning of our era. Already in those days, when Central Europe was almost completely covered with forests, there were completely deforested mountain slopes and coastal plains in the Mediterranean, partly cultivated, and partly transformed into bare barren spaces. Deforestation, cattle damage and fires have become the main causes of the disappearance of the primary vegetation cover of southern Europe and Western Asia. In place of the former evergreen forests, secondary low-growing forests or overgrown shrubs appeared, which to date cover large areas. Depending on the amount of precipitation, the composition of the underlying rocks and soil types, the appearance and floristic composition of these thickets are varied.

The most rich in species composition is the so-called maquis, or macchia, which is common in the Mediterranean in all areas with heavy rainfall and well-developed soils. Extensive thickets of maquis are preserved in Corsica, the south of the Iberian Peninsula and in Greece. They consist of low trees or tall shrubs, reaching 3-5 m in height. Despite regional differences, almost everywhere are predominant evergreen oaks, strawberry tree (Arbutus andrachne), wild pistachio (Pistacia lentiscus), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), juniper (Juniperus macrocarpa), tree heath (Erica arborea), wild olive (Olea oleaster ). Many maquis plants are aromatic, some have large bright flowers.

Thickets, consisting of rare undersized xerophytic shrubs and semi-shrubs of leguminous, labium-flowered, francanicus, etc., are characteristic of dry stony limestone slopes with intermittent soil cover. In the west (in Spain and France) thickets of this type are called harriga, in the Balkan peninsula. - frigana. Their species composition is somewhat different. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean, shrub thickets are widespread, consisting not only of evergreen, but also of deciduous species: tree-bearing (Paliurus aculeatus), sumach (Rhus coriaria), and lilac (Syringa vulgaris). Thickets of these, sometimes found at considerable heights, are called shhiblyak.

In the least favorable places for the renewal of vegetation after the destruction of forests, the mountain slopes are quickly eroded, and ravines and landslides develop. Karst processes are intensively carried out on limestones. Therefore, in the Mediterranean a lot of barren areas, devoid of soil and vegetation. In many ways, this was facilitated by accelerated erosion due to significant slopes of the mountain slopes and heavy rainfall in the winter season. But along with this, in the coastal lowlands and terraced mountain slopes on carefully cultivated lands, olive groves, vineyards, fields of wheat and corn are common. Citrus fruits predominate in the southern regions - oranges, lemons, oranges, on which flowers and ripe fruits can be seen for almost the whole year. Around the settlements spread lush plantings of ornamental plants from local and tropical species - palm trees, bougainvillea, roses, etc.

The inland sector of Eurasia, which includes the main part of Asia, with the exception of its extreme east and southeast, in terms of the species composition of the flora and the distribution of zonal types of land cover has significant differences. The soil and vegetation cover of this part of the continent, as already mentioned, was finally formed relatively recently under the influence of strong climate and relief changes in the Neogene-Quaternary time.

Modern climatic conditions are characterized by continentality and aridity, manifesting from the temperate to the tropical belt and amplified due to the peculiarities of the orography. Therefore, in contrast to the Atlantic part, the inland areas of the continent are characterized by a smaller distribution of forest soil types and vegetation and a wide distribution of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

The northern part of Asia within Russia is characterized by the expansion of tundra and forest-tundra, the spread of taiga, the absence of mixed and deciduous forests. A narrow strip of forest-steppe passes into the steppe, which in Asia does not form a continuous strip, being interrupted by mountains covered with coniferous forest. The soil and vegetation cover of Asia within Russia is studied in detail in the relevant course. Here we look at the soil and vegetation of overseas Asia.

In the north of Mongolia, in the Selenga river basin, steppe lowland areas alternate with mountain ranges overgrown with coniferous forest or covered with mountain-steppe vegetation. In the steppes of the temperate zone, varieties of dry cereal and shrubby-grass steppes on chestnut soils predominate. East of the plains of northeastern China, as moisture increases, they are replaced by forb-grass steppes on chernozem or chernozem-like soils. Such a pattern in the distribution of soil types and vegetation is related to the fact that the climate in the temperate zone of Asia becomes drier and more continental, when moving from the oceans deep into the continent, excess evaporation over actual evaporation increases and, consequently, the moisture deficit increases. Therefore, changes in land cover along the parallels are more pronounced in this area than from north to south. Dry steppes are replaced by desert steppes, where arrays of brown slightly humus soils alternate with saline and salt marshes. Especially large spaces in Central Asia, Southern Mongolia and Northwest China, i.e. on the southern margin of the temperate zone, occupy the desert. Sparse coniferous and deciduous forests grow only on the most moistened mountain slopes.

Deserts of the temperate zone of foreign Asia are formed in a sharply continental climate with hot summers and cold winters, with an annual rainfall of no more than 200 mm (mostly less than 100 mm), fairly evenly distributed throughout the year and providing soil wetting by only 0.5 m. Vegetation and desert soils present an exceptionally variegated picture, since the slightest change in soil, topography, or moisture affects the peculiarities of the soil and vegetation cover. Solyanka-shrub and ephemer formations on gray-brown highly carbonate soils formed on ancient loams and loess are the most common. There are vast tracts of winds of sand (Karakum and Kyzylkum, Takla-Makan, Alashan, separate areas of the Dzungarian hollow), not fixed with vegetation or overgrown with tamarisk, juzgun and saxaul, as well as areas of stony and gravelly deserts, almost devoid of soil and vegetation. Soils of different stages of salinization are widespread. On the silty-prilovial plumes of foothills, takyrs with wormwood are formed. The most valuable plant of the Asian deserts is Saksaul. Wood is used as fuel, young shoots serve as food for camels. White saxaul (Haloxylonn persicum) is planted to anchor sands, and black (Haloxylon aphyllum) is planted in salt marshes.

Along dry rivers that periodically fill with water after rains and often have an underground watercourse, as well as along rare permanently flowing rivers, especially when they leave the mountains on the plains, there are oases distinguished by bright greenery on the uniform desert background. Reeds and poplars predominate in the natural vegetation of the oases (tugai), from cultivated plants they grow grapevine, fruit trees, cotton, tobacco.

The arid conditions established from the Pliocene are also characteristic of the inner part of the subtropical belt of Eurasia, and the transition from the Mediterranean to the continental arid subtropical climate of the inner parts of the Near-Asian highlands is very gradual. Aridity is manifested already in the Anatolian plateau and increases to the east in Mesopotamia and the Iranian Highlands. But in all these areas the spring-winter maximum of precipitation is preserved, which significantly affects the nature of vegetation and soil. Gray-brown soils and vegetation of dry shrub steppes are characteristic for areas with moisture content of more than 300 mm per year. When the amount of precipitation is 300 mm or less, sierozems of subtropical semi-deserts and vegetation of prickly cushion-shaped shrubs from the genus astragalus, tragacanths and other low-growing xerophytes, adapted to strong evaporation, sharp temperature fluctuations and relatively low winter temperatures, develop. This formation is known as the upland xerophytes. Gray-brown soil and serozem contain humus somewhat less than brown, but more than gray-brown soil (about 2-4%), and have a reserve of almost all the chemical elements needed by plants. For their effective agricultural use, artificial irrigation is needed, the use of which in the arid regions of Turkey and Iran makes it possible to grow crops, fruit trees, rice, and cotton. On isolated mountainous areas of the Iranian Highlands, rainfall decreases to 100 mm or less. There are common rocky and saline sandy desert, almost devoid of vegetation.

In the more eastern regions of the subtropical zone, the highest highlands of the world rise (Tibetan and others). They are characterized by cold alpine deserts with extremely sparse vegetation, which are dominated by hard grasses, pillows and thorny bushes. Along the river valleys there are stunted buckthorn bushes (Hippophae rhamnoides), there are meadows of hard Tibetan cobresia sedge. Swamps form on flat, better moistened areas.

Forests in the inland part of the subtropical belt occupy an insignificant part of the surface, mainly on the slopes of the most abundantly irrigated mountain ranges, along river valleys, and also under the conditions of the so-called "barrier foot". The latter are most characteristic of the Colchis and Lankaran lowlands, adjacent to the mountain ridges of the Greater Caucasus, and the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. In these areas from the Neogene, wet-wooded subtropical landscapes have been preserved. Extensive and dense arrays of deciduous mesophilic forests with evergreen shrub species, lianas and epiphytes also grow on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, the northern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus, the Talysh Mountains and the Elbrus Range, where there is a lot of precipitation and the climate did not experience significant changes from preglacial time.

Arid conditions persist in the tropical belt of Eurasia, covering the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia and a large part of the Indus River Basin. Under conditions of dry and hot, with a warm winter of a tropical climate, soils of the gray-brown type are formed in the lower parts of the mountain slopes, close to the soils of the deserts of the subtropical and temperate zones. On plains huge spaces are occupied with sandy and stony deserts. Among the plants dominated by ephemera, germinating after short-term, rarely falling rain, stiff shrubs and dry cereals. Mimosa and acacia can be found along dry channels, a date palm (Phoenix dactilifera) grows in oases, the fruits of which (dates) are of great importance for the local population and are exported.

The vegetation of the subequatorial and equatorial zones is represented by various types of tropical forests and savanna associations (grasslands). In the distribution and correlation of these types of vegetation and their corresponding soils, there is a very clear dependence on the amount and period of precipitation, on the topography and on the underlying rocks. On the Indus and Ganges plains and the Hindustan peninsula, due to its relief, its interaction with monsoon air currents and the prevalence of areas with insufficient moisture, more xerophytic formations are common than in southeastern Asia. They are like a continuation of the arid regions of the inner parts of the continent, while Southeast Asia serves as a continuation of the much more humid and predominantly forest oceanic sector of the continent.

For natural vegetation Indus and Ganga pools characteristic changing each other depending on the number of summer precipitation monsoon forests with a predominance of deciduous species in the upper tiers and evergreen undergrowth, dry deciduous forest desertificated Savannah, xerophilic woodlands and bushes consist of undersized spiny deciduous species and evergreen succulents. As part of the forest flora, the most common trees are valuable wood, such as teak (Tectona grandis), sal (Shorea robusta), terminal (Terminalia), etc. Acacia trees and albitias grow in the underbrush. With a decrease in moisture, the average height of the stand decreases to 12–15 m, trees acquire an umbrella-like form, and high grass is typical for grass cover. The modern vegetation of the Indo-Republic and the Indus basin, as well as the Irrawaddy and Mekong lowlands, the “dry zone” of Myanmar, the Korat plateau, the lowlands of Vietnam and Laos are characterized by secondary savannas that occurred at the site of seasonal rain forests as a result of repeated fires, grazing or periodic plowing. The species composition of savanna vegetation is represented by pyrophytes, which confirms their anthropogenic origin. The differences are manifested in the height and closeness of the grass stand, the distribution of the tree-shrub layer and depend primarily on the nature and intensity of the anthropogenic impact. In the savannas of Hindustan, tall grasses are spread, including ecologically aggressive Alang-Alang (Imperata cylindrica); in the tree cover various acacias, myrtle, two-winged, dominantly growing in the lower tier of the dominant forests dominate. Thus, modern savannahs (with the exception of the desert) can be considered long-term communities, secondary to different types of tropical forests.

The soils of the considered areas are formed on the ancient weathering crust covering the crystalline and ancient sedimentary formations. They are enriched with iron and aluminum hydroxides, giving them different shades of red, the humus content reaches 2-4%. Depending on the conditions of moistening, red lateritic (ferralitic) soils form under seasonally wet forests, brown-red soils under xerophytic forests, and red-brown soils under dry savannas. All of them, especially red soils, have significant fertility under the condition of artificial irrigation. Soils of the central part of Hindustan, which form on the surface of basalt covers and weathering products of basalt, are distinguished by special properties. These soils have an intense black color, contain a large amount of calcium, retain water well and are distinguished by high fertility. They are especially favorable for the cultivation of cotton, for which they received the name of cotton soils. Their local name, regusry, was included in the special literature.

Tropical rainforests grow on the abundantly irrigated slopes of the Himalayas, on the slopes of the Western Ghats, on the Malabar coast and in the south-west of Sri Lanka, i.e. in areas windward with respect to the summer monsoons and having the longest rainy period. These are usually poly-dominant forests of complex composition with the presence of a large number of endemics, more than 100 species of palm trees, various lianas and epiphytes. Strips of mangroves stretch along the coastlines flooded by tides. Trees growing in the intertidal zone have air stilted roots allowing them to remain in silt.

The natural vegetation cover in South Asia has been greatly modified by humans. For millennia, forests in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka were cut down for the needs of shipbuilding, for fuel and for arable land. On the Indo-Gangetic Plain, in the northern part of the Deccan, in Sri Lanka, vast areas are occupied by rice, millet, cotton, plantations of tea bushes and hevea. The threatening pace of deforestation is evidenced by the constant growth of deforested land: at the end of the 70s. XX century. Asia annually destroyed 2 million hectares of forests, and in the 90s - already more than 3 million hectares. The highest rates of deforestation are characteristic of Bangladesh and Pakistan, where forest area is reduced by 2–2.5% annually. In many areas, secondary jungles appear at the site of the destroyed high-growth forests, which have no economic significance. As a result of deforestation, soil fertility is quickly lost, floods are intensifying in the lower densely populated parts of river valleys, a general desiccation of the territory occurs, and there is a real threat of losing the Unique gene pool. Attempts are being made to restore forest vegetation by planting the most valuable species (for example, teak), but the scale of forest plantations is far behind the rate of deforestation.

In the special conditions of the formation of flora and modern natural vegetation cover is the eastern, oceanic sector of Eurasia. The eastern part of Asia is characterized by monsoon atmospheric circulation, with great clarity expressed in all climatic zones, and temperature conditions from north to south change gradually, which is favored by the device surface with a predominance of sub-meridional trend of the main orographic elements. The natural sub-latitude is the Qinling Range, but it does not reach the Pacific Ocean either. Such conditions facilitate the exchange of floristic species between the north and the south, i.e. between the Holarctic and Paleotropic, and contribute to the enrichment of flora areas located in different latitudes. The climatic conditions of the east of Asia did not experience significant changes from the Pliocene, and there the Glacial flora of Turgai found shelter there, completely disappeared in the more northern and western regions due to cooling and drying of the climate. Therefore, the east and south-east of Asia are characterized by the antiquity and richness of floras, the predominance of forest soil types and vegetation in all latitudes.

In the foreign part of East Asia, from north to south, there is a change of land cover types from coniferous forests of the temperate zone in the north to humid equatorial forests in the south.

Coniferous forests, similar in composition to the forests of Southern Siberia, cover the slopes of Great Khingan in the north and areas adjacent to it from the north-east. They also occupy the north of the island of Hokkaido, where fir, Siberian and native species of fir trees, the Far Eastern yew and small-leaved trees (birch, alder, aspen, willow) grow. On the more southerly islands of Japan, in Korea and Northeast China, coniferous forests move to the upper parts of the mountains, while the lower parts of the mountain slopes and plains were in the past, and partly now, covered with deciduous deciduous forests with coniferous forests with rich undergrowth. These forests are largely relict of the Turgai flora and have many common genera with the Atlantic forests of Europe, represented, however, by other, mostly endemic species. The soils of these forests are also analogous to the forest burozems of Western Europe.

The main hardwoods in the forests of the considered area are oak, beech, maple, ash, linden, walnut. Pine, fir, spruce and thuja are characteristic of conifers. In addition, there are magnolias, paulownia, tulip tree (Liriodendron chinense) with beautiful, brightly colored flowers (Appendix 5). Lush undergrowth form rhododendrons, primer, Amur lilac, honeysuckle. Numerous creepers and epiphytes give the forest a tropical appearance. Along the river valleys on alluvial soils, rich meadow vegetation is developed.

Valleys and lowlands in East Asia are densely populated and cultivated, the share of agricultural land is 60 96, and in some places up to 80% of the territory. Forests are preserved almost exclusively in the mountains. In many areas, they were replaced by artificial stands of mainly conifers, among which the first place belongs to the most valuable cryptomeria. In the Great Plain of China, the millennial agricultural culture has changed the natural conditions to such an extent that it is impossible to restore the picture of the natural vegetation cover. At the same time, Japan, for example, has significant forest tracts that make up almost 67% of its total area. The forest cover of the Korean Peninsula is even higher (75%), but the forests there are largely secondary forests or artificial stands.

South of the Qinling Range, in the Yangtze River Basin, moderate-deciduous deciduous forests are gradually replaced by evergreen subtropical forests on red-earth and yellow-earth soils. Along with such broadleaf species as beech and oak, in the composition of these forests, the ancient thermophilic forms - camphor laurel, cycads, representatives of the Magnolia family, some palm trees gradually occupy an ever increasing place. The northern limit of the distribution of the latter in East Asia reaches 45 ° s on the Japanese Islands. sh. But in the subtropical forests one can also meet some representatives of the northern flora, which give these forests an originality and create extraordinary floristic contrasts.

At present, evergreen subtropical forests, especially in mainland China, have been preserved only in the mountains. The lower parts of the slopes and plains are occupied by cultivated lands with a very diverse set of cultivated plants. Low land availability per capita and a shortage of arable land on the plains has led to widespread mountain terraced farming in East China, which accounts for about a quarter of the total arable land.

A significant part of the Indochina peninsula and the islands of the Malayan and Philippine archipelagoes are covered with tropical rain forests. In these areas, they occupy relatively large areas than at the corresponding latitudes in South Asia, alternating, as there, with deciduous forests and secondary savannas.

The tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia are exceptionally lush and rich in species. They contain up to 300 types of palm trees, ranging from the tall slender palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis) and ending with palm-lianas (the length of the rattan palm, for example, reaches 300 m). There are numerous species of families of dipterocarp, bignonium, cashew, etc. These forests, like nowhere else in the world, are distinguished by the species diversity of bamboo, which find here the widest application. They are used for the construction of homes, the production of furniture, fine paper; young shoots are eaten, and thin branches - for weaving various products. Bamboo in Southeast and East Asia is distributed not only in the wild state, but also in culture.

On cleared areas cultivated various plants of local origin or imported from other tropical countries. Coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) are common in the coastal regions of the Philippines and the Sunda Islands. In Indonesia, large areas are set aside for plantations of rubber Hevea (Hevea brasiliensis), on many islands they grow plants, various parts of which are used as spices. On the flooded alluvial lowlands, they sow rice, the terraces on the mountain slopes are planted with tea plants. In tropical forests, there are also many valuable fruit trees that are widely included in the crop - melon (Carica papaya), bread (species Artocarpus), mango (Mangifera indica), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana).

Eurasia, with its richest and most diverse flora, is home to the vast majority of ancestors of cultivated plants and wild species with useful traits: rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, rice, many legumes (including soybeans), roots, tea bushes, sugar cane, many fruit trees (including citrus), plants used as spices, a huge number of ornamental plants. Of the seven centers of origin of cultivated plants, allocated N.I. Vavilov, four are in Eurasia (South Asian Tropical, East Asian, South-West Asian and Mediterranean, including also the northern coast of Africa (Annex 6).

The history of cultivation of many widespread cultivated plants is estimated in some countries for centuries and even millennia. It is known that rice and rice have been cultivated in India and China for seven thousand years, in Indonesia - not less than one thousand years, wheat in some countries of Western Asia has been known for 5-7 thousand years. Tea bush, widely entered into the culture in China in about IV. AD, obviously, was known much earlier.

2.2 Animal world of Eurasia

The animal world of Eurasia is very diverse. The distribution of modern wild fauna over the territory depends on the peculiarities of the natural conditions and on the results of human activity. The most common large tundra mammal is the reindeer. The tundra is also found in Arctic fox, lemming and white hare. Of the birds, the most common are white and tundra partridges. In the summer, gulls, divers, eider, geese, ducks, swans fly to the tundra. The fauna of the forest zone is best preserved in the taiga. Here live wolves, brown bears, moose, lynx, fox, squirrel, wolverine, marten. Of the birds - black grouse, wood grouse, hazel grouse, crossbill. Steppe animals - steppe ferret, gophers, various mice. Of the large animals, the saiga is preserved. A variety of birds - larks, swallows, falcons. In semi-deserts and deserts reptiles, rodents, ungulates prevail. Two-humped camels live in Central Asia, wild asses are kulans. In the mountainous forests of southern China, a bamboo panda bear, a black Himalayan bear, and a leopard have been preserved. Wild elephants still live in Hindustan and on the island of Sri Lanka. For India and Indochina is characterized by an abundance of monkeys, a large number of different reptiles, especially poisonous snakes. Many animals living in Eurasia are listed in the Red Book: bison, Ussurian tiger, Kulan, etc.

The large, northern part of Eurasia belongs to the Holarctic zoogeographic region; the smaller, southern, to the Indo-Malay and Ethiopian regions (Annex 7).

The Indo-Malay region includes the peninsulas of Hindustan and Indochina along with the adjacent part of the mainland, the islands of Taiwan, the Philippines and Sunda, the South of Arabia, along with most of Africa, is part of the Ethiopian region. Some southeastern islands of the Malay Archipelago are most zoogeographers in the Australian zoogeographic region. This division reflects the development of the Eurasian fauna in the process of changing natural conditions during the end of the Mesozoic and all Cenozoic, as well as links with other continents. The ancient extinct fauna known only in the fossil state, the fauna that disappeared in historical time as a result of human activity, and the modern fauna are of interest to characterize the natural environment.

At the end of the Mesozoic, a diverse fauna consisting of monotremes and marsupials of mammals, snakes, turtles, etc. was formed on the territory of Eurasia. With the advent of placental mammals, especially predators, lower mammals retreated to the south, to Africa and Australia. They were replaced by proboscis, camels, horses, rhinos, who inhabited in Cenozoic most of Eurasia. The cooling of the climate at the end of the Cenozoic led to the extinction of many of them or the retreat to the south. Trunks, rhinos, etc. in the north of Eurasia, they are known only in the fossil state, and now they live only in South and Southeast Asia. Until recently camels and wild horses were widespread in the internal arid parts of Eurasia.

The cooling of the climate led to the colonization of Eurasia by animals adapted to the harsh climatic conditions (mammoth, tour, etc.). This northern fauna, the center of formation of which was located in the region of the Bering Sea and was common with North America, gradually pushed the thermophilic fauna to the south. Many of its representatives became extinct, some remained in the composition of the modern fauna of tundra and taiga forests. The drying up of the continental interior climate was accompanied by the spread of the steppe and desert fauna, which was preserved mainly in the steppes and deserts of Asia, and in Europe partially died out.

In eastern Asia, where climatic conditions did not undergo significant changes during the Cenozoic, many animals of preglacial time found shelter. In addition, there was an exchange of animals through East Asia between the Holarctic and Indo-Malay regions. Tropical forms such as the tiger, the Japanese macaque and others penetrate far to the north.

The distribution of modern wild fauna across the territory of Eurasia reflects both the history of its development, and the peculiarities of natural conditions and the results of human activity.

On the northern islands and in the extreme north of the mainland, the composition of the fauna almost does not change from west to east. The fauna of the tundra and taiga forests has minor internal differences. The further south, the differences in latitude within the Holarctic become more and more significant. The fauna of the extreme south of Eurasia is already so specific and so different from the tropical fauna of Africa and even Arabia that they belong to different zoogeographical regions.

The fauna of the tundra is especially monotonous throughout Eurasia (as well as North America).

The most common large tundra mammal is the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). It is almost never found in Europe in the wild; This is the most common and valuable pet of the north of Eurasia. The tundra is characterized by arctic fox, lemming and white hare (Appendix 8).

The most common land birds are white and tundra partridges (Lagopus lagopus and Lagopus mutus), plantains and horned lark. For a short summer period, numerous migratory waterfowl fly to the tundra to bring chicks: gulls, guilleats, loons, eider, geese, ducks, swans. Chistiki and gulls usually settle on high rocky shores, lay eggs on the eaves and in the crevices of rocky cliffs. In such places, they are going to hundreds of thousands, formed the so-called bird markets. During the nesting period, birds are easy to catch, and the population, taking advantage of this, exterminates them and collects eggs. The most valuable birds of the coastline are common eider (Somateria mollissima), which have a light and exceptionally warm down, with which they cover their nests. In some countries (Iceland, Norway, Russia), eiders are monitored and guarded, and the collection of their fluff, which is highly valued on the world market, is controlled by the state. On the shores of lakes, rivers and swamps nest ducks, geese and other birds.

The coastal waters, rivers and lakes of the north of Eurasia are rich in fish, mainly from the salmon family.

During the Ice Age, mammoths, woolly rhinos, and musk oxen lived in the modern tundra. Now their remains are found only in the fossil state. In some places (for example, in Svalbard), musk oxen, exported from Arctic America, are artificially bred.

The fauna of the Eurasian forests is distinguished by a somewhat greater differentiation. Particularly pronounced differences fauna of deciduous forests of the west and east, separated by vast expanses of steppes and deserts. Taiga forests stretching across the whole continent are characterized by comparative monotony of the animal world.

The most typical representatives of the taiga fauna of Eurasia can be considered as elk, brown bear, lynx, wolverine, squirrel, chipmunk, red vole; from birds - black grouses, wood grouses, hazel grouses, crossbills. These animals are common in the plains of the taiga, as well as in the coniferous forests of the mountainous regions of Europe and Asia.

Between the mixed and deciduous forests of the Atlantic Europe, on the one hand, and the Far East, on the other, there are, as already mentioned, large differences in the composition of the animal world.

The forests of Europe once inhabited numerous large mammals - predators and herbivores, which were the subject of hunting because of their meat or valuable fur. The most characteristic representatives of the forest fauna are the brown bear, the wisent (Bison bonasus), the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), the red deer (Cervus elaphus), the wolverine, the pine marten (Martes martes), the forest ferret (Mustela putorius), the weasel (Mustela nivalis), wildcat (Felis silvestris), fox, hedgehog, hare and hare. The brown bear (Ursus arctos), completely disappeared on the plains, is still still found in the mountains, especially in the Carpathians. Among the endemic mountain species, chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), mountain goats (Capra ibex, Capra pyrenaica) and marmots (Marmota marmota) should be noted. Deforestation and plowing of large spaces led to the wide distribution of small rodents - voles, shrews, gophers, which cause great harm to agriculture.

The richness of avifauna. Mixed and deciduous forests inhabit partridges, black grouses, wood-grouses, hazel grouses, which are valuable game; Many songbirds are also common - thrushes, orioles, warblers, warblers, etc. Often there are owls, owls, pigeons and cuckoos. Waterfowl nest in water bodies. Swallows, rooks and storks lodge near settlements. Most birds are migratory. In the autumn, caravans of geese, ducks, cranes, flocks of rooks and other birds stretch along strictly defined paths to the south in order to return to the places of their nesting places in the spring.

In the rivers and lakes are found mainly carp fish, but there are also salmon.

Some of the large animals that previously lived in European forests are no longer present; others have been preserved only in specially protected areas. Among the first to be called a tour (Bos primigenius) - a huge wild bull. The last tour was killed in Europe at the beginning of the XVII century. The wisent was on the verge of complete extinction; it used to live in vast areas from France and Belgium to the Caucasus. The bison that was systematically exterminated during knightly, royal and tsarist hunts, which was badly damaged during the First and Second World Wars, was saved from total annihilation by joint efforts of Soviet and Polish scientists. The largest bison population currently lives in the Bialowieza Biosphere Reserve on the border of Poland and Belarus. Strongly reduced the number of deer, mountain goats, chamois. Almost everywhere wolves were exterminated, and bears retreated to mountainous areas, and even there they are extremely rare.

The fauna of the forests of Eastern Asia, allocated to the Manchuria-Chinese subregion of the Holarctic, has a pronounced mountain-forest character and is distinguished by a large species richness. This is due, on the one hand, to the fact that the east of Asia did not experience significant climate fluctuations during the Ice Age and within its borders some representatives of the thermophilic ancient fauna took refuge. On the other hand, the climatic conditions of this part of Asia gradually change from north to south, contributing to the penetration of northern taiga forms to the south and tropical forms to the north, which creates a mixture of faunas typical of East Asia and leads to a large species richness.

One of the most characteristic representatives of the mammalian fauna of the mountain forests of China and the Himalayas is the black Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus), which lives in the mountains to an altitude of 4000 m, feeding on plant food, insects and small animals. In the bamboo thickets of Eastern Tibet and Southeast China, there is a bamboo bear, or a large panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). In dense riverine bamboo and reed thickets and mountain forests, sometimes rising to the upper boundary of the forest, the tiger is found (Panthera tigris) - the most dangerous predator in Asia; there are also leopard (Panthera pardus) and martens (Martes flavigula). The characteristic fauna of deciduous forests is the endemic raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and the Far Eastern forest cat. In the river valleys of China and the peninsula of Korea, there is a small hornless water deer (Hydropotes inermis); A spotted deer (Cervus nippon) is common in the north, with young antlers, antlers, valued as medicinal raw materials. Some monkeys (of the macaque genus) come from South Asia. In the Manchu-China subregion, at 40 ° c. sh., passes the northern limit of their distribution on the globe. Representatives of the taiga fauna of the neighboring European-Siberian subregion - flying squirrel and chipmunk.

The forests of East Asia are inhabited by various birds. Pheasants (golden, royal, etc.) stand out as bright plumage; the pied colored mandarin duck (Aix galericulata) is the most beautiful representative of this family, the endemic Japanese crane (Grus japonensis). There are many different passerines - white-eyed, larva-eating, thymelia.

Among reptiles there are many lizards and snakes, which are represented by genera that are common with the Indo-Malay region. In addition, there are one type of alligator and tortoise. Among amphibians, tree frogs and an endemic giant salamander (Andrias japonicus) living on the Japanese islands are characteristic.

The fauna of the Mediterranean, the Near Asian highlands and Arabia is peculiar, which gave grounds for the isolation of a special Mediterranean subregion of the Holarctic. There are endemic mountain and plain species, as well as species common with North Africa. The fauna of Southern Europe includes monkeys, primitive predators, birds, and a large number of amphibians and reptiles, which are almost completely absent in the more northern parts of Eurasia.

On the Iberian Peninsula and in the south of France lives a representative of the civet family - the common genet (Genetta genetta), a small predator eating rodents and therefore considered a useful animal. In the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the only species of monkeys found in the wild state in Europe is the macaque mage, or the tailless macaque.

The wild mountain sheep (Ovis ammon), which used to live on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, almost completely destroyed, lives in mountain forests or on open mountain peaks. On the islands of the Aegean Sea and in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, wild goats are still found in mountainous areas with very poor vegetation. Goats are generally widely distributed in the Mediterranean, in some areas they are the only domestic animals. Only in Southern Europe are Pyrenean desman, porcupine, jackal, wild rabbit.

The birds of the Mediterranean are no less peculiar than mammals. The most characteristic are blue magpie, mountain hen, Sardinian glory, Spanish and stone sparrow and many others. Of the birds of prey, the black vulture, the vulture, the ovum are common, attacking small livestock.

Reptiles feel well in a dry climate. Among them are endemic forms: lizards, geckos, chameleons, Mediterranean viper and some other species of snakes; of tortoises - Greek tortoise. Arthropods are also numerous - scorpions, freshwater crabs, various beetles, cicadas, brightly colored butterflies.

In addition to the typical Mediterranean elements, the fauna of the Persian highlands includes some representatives of the Central Asian subregion, as well as the Ethiopian region of Africa. Ungulates are characterized by gazelles, antelopes, wild donkeys, Central Asian mountain sheep and goats. Representatives of the Ethiopian region are peculiar ungulates - damans (Hyracoidea), living in rocky mountainous areas at a considerable height. Of predators, leopards, lynx, caracal, jackal, hyena, and some fox species are common. Rodents are numerous - hares, jerboas, gerbils, one species of porcupine. Among the birds of Western Asia there are many representatives of the Central Asian deserts and steppes: bustards, grouse, larks, desert jays, etc. There are herons, flamingos, and pelicans in the reservoirs. There is also a great variety of reptiles, especially lizards, snakes: steppe boa, gyrza viper (Vipera lebetina), horned viper (Vipera ammodites), snakes, snakes. Characteristic abundance of arthropods, often bringing great harm to people. Among them are phalanxes, scorpions, tarantulas. Crops of crops suffer from locust periodically.

Desert plateaus and mountain ranges of Central Asia have a peculiar fauna and stand out in a special Central Asian zoogeographical subregion. It is characterized by general relative poverty of the species composition and the predominance of ungulates and rodents, which are adapted to exist in the vast treeless and anhydrous spaces of the central regions of Asia.

Some animals are limited in their distribution to certain areas of Central Asia, others are settled throughout it. So, only in Tibet and Kunlun is there a wild yak (Bos mutus), and even there it gradually disappears. This large animal is content with scant food of high desert plateaus and feels fine in the conditions of the harsh continental climate, but does not tolerate high temperature at all. Yak is one of the most common domestic animals of Central Asia. They are used for carrying weights and as riding animals. Locals eat their milk and meat, their skins and wool are used to make clothes.

On the Tibetan Plateau and in the mountains of Central Asia, orongo (Pantholops hodgsoni), addax (Addax nasomaculatus), mountain ram argali, or argali (Ovis ammon), reaching enormous sizes, mountain goats are widespread. On the steppe and semi-desert plains of Mongolia and North-West China, there are found gazelles (Procapra gutturosa), a wild donkey, a kulan (Equus hemmionus) and an extremely rare qiang (Equus kiang), as well as a wild two-humped camel Bactrian (Camelus bactrianus) - the parent of the housekeeping animal, Cameron breeder This is a typical animal of the desert and dry steppes does not live in the mountains and areas with a humid climate. Camels are used in the plains of Central and Central Asia as a means of transportation and plodding force. Locals eat their milk, fat and meat, make clothes from wool.

Predators are not as diverse in Central Asia as ungulates. The snow leopard irbis (Uncia uncia), the Tibetan subspecies of the brown bear and wolf are found in the mountains. Almost everywhere there are foxes, ordinary wolf, weasel, jackal.

Rodents are abundantly represented on plains and in mountainous regions both in the number of species and in the number of individuals.

Birds are especially diverse in mountainous areas. These are mountain turkey-ular, Tibetan saja (Syrrhaptes tibetanus), alpine jackdaws, vulture, ovum, hornet, stenolaz. There are bustards, specks, larks (small, crested, etc.) on the plains.

Reptiles and amphibians in Central Asia are few. Some lizards and snakes are common, a land tortoise.

The rest of the southern part of Eurasia falls within the Indo-Malayan zoogeographic region and is characterized by especially great wealth, diversity and antiquity of the animal world. The fauna of the region has a distinct tropical character and features common to other tropical regions of the globe, for example, the Ethiopian region of Africa, and the Neotropics. In addition, a significant impact on the fauna had former ties with Australia. The Malacca Peninsula, Sunda and Philippine Islands, united into the Malayan subregion, are the most rich and colorful of the animal world. The uniformly hot and humid climate and the predominance of tropical rainforests, as well as the insular character of the territory that has lost land connections with other parts of Asia since the beginning of the Quaternary, led to the great originality and endemism of the fauna of this subregion.

The brightest representatives of the ungulates of the Malay Archipelago are the black-tipped or two-colored tapir (Tapirus indicus), which is a native to the Cropes in South America, the one-horned Indian and the two-horned Sumatran rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis and Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), the wild bull banteng (Bos javanusus) and the wild bull banteng (Bos javanusus unicornis and Dicerorhinus sumatrensis); cattle, water buffalo (Bubalus arnee), gaur (Bos gaurus). In the mountains and on the uplands, in the forests, little frequented by people, a small Muntzhak (Muntiacus muntjak) is distributed.

Predators include the Malay Shorthair "sun" bear (Helarctos malayanus) and the tiger. On the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan there is a great-ape monkey orangutan ("forest man"), which is now extremely rare (Appendix 9).

Representatives of the gibbon family, the subfamily of the monkeys, and some species of macaques are ubiquitous. Characterized by close primates and insectivorous tupaya and primitive primates tarsier.

A feature of the island’s fauna is the presence of a large number of species of "planning" animals. Among them are mammals, flying squirrels and wool-wings, representing a form intermediate between insectivores, bats and half-monkeys; reptiles - a flying dragon (Dracovolans) - a lizard, whose limbs are equipped with a flying membrane.

Among the birds are remarkable the bright pheasant the large argus (Argusianus argus), the blue-winged peacock (Pavo muticus) and the natives of Australia - the birds of paradise and large-legged chickens.

Reptiles strike with an abundance of species and large size. On the small island of Komodo lives the greatest of modern lizards - the giant Komodo monitor lizard (Varanus Komodensis), reaching 3-4 m in length. A large gavial crocodile lives in the rivers of Kalimantan. Many poisonous snakes, of which the most dangerous for a person is spectacle snakes, or cobras. Boas are also common. The largest of them - the reticulated python (Python reticulatus) - reaches a length of 8-10 m and a mass of 100 kg. It is dangerous not only for large animals, but also for humans.

Among the diverse arthropods, large and brightly colored butterflies are particularly significant. Scorpions and huge tarantulas are also common.

The islands of Sulawesi and the Lesser Sunda in zoological respect occupy a special place. The Sulawesi endemic animals include the wild pig babirussa (Babyrossa babyrussa), the dwarf buffalo anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the black macaque, and the representatives of the Australian fauna include the marsupial cuscus, large chickens and many other birds.

India, Sri Lanka and Indochina are distinguished as a special Indian subregion. The fauna of this subregion, along with many typical representatives of the Indo-Malay region, includes natives of the Ethiopian region and the Holarctic. The animal world of the Indian subregion is distinguished by species diversity and a large number of individuals. This is especially true of India, where the killing of any living creatures is forbidden by religion, therefore here it is very rare to destroy even harmful animals.

In the fauna of India and Indochina, the presence of an Indian elephant is characteristic. Wild elephants are still found in sparsely populated areas of the Himalayan foothills, in the forests of Sri Lanka and other places. The domestic elephant, accustomed to perform difficult and complex work, is one of the most typical animals of India and the countries of Indochina.

The local population also tames the wild ox, the gaura (gayala). Domesticated and widely distributed as a working cattle, water buffalo. In dense riverine thickets often found wild Indian wild boar. In areas where large tracts of forest have been preserved, the large Nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus) and tetrapod antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), the Muntzhak and Aksis deer (Cervus axis) live - one of the most beautiful representatives of this family living in forest-rich areas. . Of the predators, the tiger, leopard and a special form of the leopard are common - the black panther, causing significant damage to herding. Within the desert of Tar, there is occasionally a lion that penetrated here from the Ethiopian region.

For India and Indochina is characterized by an abundance of monkeys that are common everywhere: in the forests, savannas, gardens, near settlements and even in cities. They eat the fruits and spoil the crops, causing great damage to the population. Dog-like monkeys are found in India, in Indochina - gibbons, macaques and others. Within the subregion, semi-monkeys or lemurs live in the forests and near human habitation. For Indochina, as well as for the islands, are characterized by wool wings.

The real disaster for the local population is the abundance of various reptiles, especially venomous snakes, from the bites of which thousands of people die every year. In the waters of the Ganges and other large rivers, giant crocodiles (Gavialis gangeticus) are found, reaching 6 m in length.

Brightness of plumage and a variety of forms affects the world of birds. Among them are the common peacock (Pavo cristatus), pheasant, species of wild chickens, from which domestic breeds, various thrushes, etc. come. Of the insects, there are especially many various motley-colored butterflies, giant bird-eating spiders feeding on small birds. There is a wild bee in India - the ancestor of the domestic bee.

Direct destruction of valuable species of plants and animals (hunting, poaching, illegal trade), and most importantly - changing their habitats as a result of anthropogenic impact, led to the fact that many species of Eurasian fauna were endangered. There are 471 species of mammals, 389 species of birds, 276 species of fish, 85 species of reptiles and 33 species of amphibians. About two thirds of all wildlife habitats in Asia have been destroyed. In China, one of the 12 countries of the world, which are distinguished by "megabiodiversity", 15-20% of species are endangered. Of the seven endemic species of mammals in West Asia, four (Arabian leopard, striped hyena, Arabian tar and Arabian wolf) are endangered. The situation with the loss of species and their habitats in Western Europe is hardly improving.

Conclusion

As a result of writing the work we can draw the following conclusions.

The share of Eurasia with the islands accounts for 53.4 million km 2, i.e.37% of the land area. It stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from the Arctic to the equator. It is crossed by all geographic zones and zones of the Northern Hemisphere. This continent includes two large regions - Europe and Asia.

Eurasia is notable for the considerable complexity of its geological history and the mosaic structure of its geological structure. The surface of Eurasia has a complex structure. Extensive plains and mountain belts are located differently from other continents, where the mountains are located on the outskirts of the continents. Mountains in Eurasia are located in the depths of the mainland, they seem to connect two huge mountain belts. One (Pacific) stretches from north to south to the east of the continent. It is formed on the boundaries of the lithospheric plates, where intensive movements of the crust take place. Another mountain belt (Albi-Himalayan) is located in the south and stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. This belt conditionally connects two lanes of plains. To the north of it lie the East European, West Siberian, Turanian plains, the Kazakh lowlands, the Central Siberian plateau and the Great China Plain. To the south - plateaus Arabian and Dean, Mesopotamian and Indo-Gangetic lowlands. The relief of Eurasia was formed around several lithospheric plates that were connected by folded belts of different ages. Eurasia is similar to several continents welded together. Earthquakes are frequent in the folded belts, volcanic eruptions occur. In addition to internal processes, external processes also had a great influence on the relief: ancient glaciation, the operation of flowing water, wind, and weathering processes, especially intense in areas with a continental climate. The complex structure of the earth's crust is the cause of a large variety of Eurasian minerals.

In Eurasia, the geographical zones of the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate and subarctic zones are located from south to north. On the wet near-oceanic margins they are represented mainly by different forest zones, and within the continent they are replaced by steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

Climatic conditions in Eurasia more sharply than on other continents, change not only from north to south, but also from west to east.

Eurasia is rich in inland waters. Many large rivers of the globe flow through it. The lakes of Eurasia stand out for their size and depth. Since the terrain and climate of different parts of Eurasia are not the same, the rivers and lakes are very unevenly distributed throughout the mainland.

More than half of Eurasia, in the floristic and faunistic terms, belongs to the Holarctic, in many areas of which the impoverishment of the organic world is observed as a result of recent uplift, glaciation, and the advance of the seas. South Eurasia is occupied by the flora of the Paleotropic region and the fauna mainly of the Indo-Malay region. Eurasia differs from other continents in the especially extensive distribution of taiga-frozen, podzolic and desert-steppe types of soil formation, as well as the diversity of types of mountain soils. The main shifts in soils and in the organic world occur with a change in latitude (from tundra, through forest zones of the temperate zone to steppes, deserts, various zones of the subtropical belt, savannas, dry tropical and humid equatorial forests), as well as with altitude belts in the mountains.

On the vast territory of Eurasia more fully than on other continents, the planetary law of geographical zonality of the terrestrial landscapes is manifested. All geographical zones of the northern hemisphere and the corresponding types of natural areas are expressed here.

As a rule, the zones are extended from west to east. However, the large extent of Eurasia from west to east causes significant differences in nature between the oceanic and continental sectors of the continent. Forest wetlands are dominated on humid near-oceanic margins, in the inner regions of the continent they are replaced by steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

The widest part of Eurasia is located in the temperate and subtropical zones. Due to the complexity of the relief of this territory, the alternation of vast plains and high uplands, framed by high mountain ranges, natural areas are not only elongated in the latitudinal direction, but also have the shape of concentric circles or giant ovals.

In the tropical latitudes of the continent, the monsoon type of climate and the meridional location of the mountain ranges barriers contribute to the change of natural zones in the meridional direction.

In areas of mountainous terrain, widely represented in Eurasia, latitudinal and meridional zonality are combined with vertical zonality of landscapes. The number of altitudinal belts increases with the transition from high to low latitudes (from arctic to equatorial latitudes).

More than half of Eurasia in the floristic and faunistic terms belongs to the Holarctic, in many areas of which the impoverishment of the organic world is observed as a result of the latest uplifting, glaciation, and the advance of the seas. The south of Eurasia is occupied by the flora of the Paleotropic region and the fauna mainly of the Indo-Malayan region. Eurasia differs from other continents by the especially extensive distribution of taiga-frozen, podzolic and desert-steppe types of soil formation, as well as the diversity of types of mountain soils. The main shifts in soils and in the organic world occur with a change in latitude (from tundra, through forest zones of the temperate zone to steppes, deserts, various zones of the subtropical belt, savannas, dry tropical and humid equatorial forests), as well as with altitude belts in the mountains.

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Applications

Annex 1

Average annual runoff in Eurasia

Appendix 2

Floristic zoning of Eurasia

Appendix 3

Damage to European forests (% of total forest area)

. Appendix 4

Distribution of some plants in overseas Europe

Appendix 5

Distribution of some plants in overseas Asia

Appendix 6

Centers of origin of cultivated plants (according to N.I. Vavilov)

Appendix 7

Faunistic zoning of Eurasia

Appendix 8

Distribution of some animals in overseas Europe

Appendix 9

Distribution of some animals in overseas Asia