Internal and external factors of language development. External factors of language development

Introduction to work

The traditional comparative historical paradigm of linguistics, which turned the study of language into an independent science, aimed at reconstructing the parent language using the methods of internal and external comparison of language data. The logical continuation of these methods is the potential possibility of reconstructing the stages of language evolution and their consideration in a contrasting aspect to identify general patterns of development.

The modern period of the development of diachronic studies in the field of Germanic languages \u200b\u200bis marked by the appearance of a number of works in which the historical development of the language is presented as a statement of changes at different levels of its system (Baugh, Cable 2002; Blake 2006; Gelderen 2006; Hogg, Denison 2006; Horobin, Smith 2002 ; Moser 1985; Polenz 2000; Romaine 2007; Singh 2005; Schmidt 2000; Sonderegger 1979; Wolf 1981; Wolman 2008 and others) These studies are joined by classical studies performed by Russian linguists (Admoni 1963; Arakin 1985, 2000; Abramov 2001; Afanasyeva 2000; Berkov 1996, 2006; Bloch 2003; Gurevich 2003; Gukhman 1983; Zinder 1965, 1968; Ilish 1968; Zhirmunsky 1965; Zelenetskiy 2004; Ivanova 2001; Rastorgueva 2003; Steblin-Kamensky 1953, 1955; Filicheva 1959; Zimmerling 1996, 2002; Yartseva 1969.) Meanwhile, the general questions of the evolution of Germanic languages \u200b\u200band the reconstruction of its individual stages remain insufficiently studied .

Object of study is the language of literature monuments of English and German in three diachronic sections (ancient, middle and new) and in two parallels: prose and poetry.

Subject of study is the behavior of the linguistic systems of the two Germanic languages \u200b\u200bin diachrony in order to elucidate the main, typologically significant phenomena and trends.

Study material made up a total of 19 texts in English and German.

The relevance of research due to a new approach to the theoretical rethinking of the problem of the general laws of evolution of language systems, addressing the issue of reconstruction of the main stages of language development, clarifying scientific ideas about a single universal way of the evolution of language systems in diachrony. The interpretation of the language stratification of the actualized state of language systems and the isomorphism of the diachronic behavior of level elements is proposed.

Hypothesis This work consists in the fact that a comparative analysis of the behavior of the linguistic system of the English and German languages \u200b\u200breveals the general laws of linguistic development, and creates the basis for highlighting the stages of linguistic evolution. The direction of evolution for these languages \u200b\u200bis the same, but the speed of language changes is not the same, due to the influence of internal and external factors.

Purpose of the study consists in identifying the influence of external and internal factors on the formation of typologically significant stages in the evolution of the morphology of the linguistic system of English and German.

Achieving this goal involves solving a set of the following tasks:

select a limited number of the most significant factors of a typological nature that affect systemic changes in language in diachrony;

to find out the taxonomics of structural levels by the degree of their activity / passivity, their compensatory, limiting or parity properties in order to elucidate the isomorphism of their constitutional, syntagmatic and paradigmatic characteristics;

clarify the role and significance of units of individual levels in the process of self-regulation of the language system;

to identify the main stages and trends in the development of English and German languages \u200b\u200bin a certain period of linguistic time, sufficient to actualize innovative trends;

analyze the mechanisms and conditions for the development of the language system of English and German;

show the typological universality of the processes of self-regulation of the morphology of language systems in diachrony.

Research methods the above object is quite diverse due to the different nature of the tasks being solved. The work comprehensively applies: descriptive analytical method, which provides for the analysis of the studied language material with the subsequent generalization of the results; system research method, aims to learn the language as a level system; contrast analysis method in conjunction with descriptive and analytical method allowed to demonstrate the dynamics of the formation of morphology in English and German; quantitative method research supplemented benchmarking quantitative indicators of the Greenberg Indices.

Methodological base of the study amounted to:

Proceedings I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay on general problems of linguistics;

Monographs E.A. Makaev and G.P. Melnikov in the study of diachronic language changes;

Works on private issues of Indo-European linguistics: K.G. Krasukhina, G.A. Menovshchikova, B.A. Serebrennikov;

Studies in the field of Germanic languages: B.A. Abramova, V.D. Arakina, V.P. Berkova, M.Ya. Flea, V.V. Gurevich, M.M. Gukhman, B.A. Ilya, V.M. Zhirmunsky, A.L. Zelenetsky, L.R. Zinder, E.S. Kubryakova, E.A. Makaeva, T.A. Rastorgueva, A.I. Smirnitsky, M.I. Steblin-Kamensky, N.I. Filicheva, A.V. Zimmerling, V.N. Yartseva.

Scientific novelty A dissertation is defined by a description of the evolution of the language system. In the work, its stages are identified and substantiated, and a scheme of these stages is proposed. The general laws of the development of the language system in time are established. The concept of a “level model of a language system” has been expanded, to which a functional component has been added. The factors of the internal and external planes and their influence on the diachronic development of the language are analyzed.

The main provisions to be defended:

The course of linguistic evolution is influenced by factors of the external and internal planes. At different diachronic sections, the influence of these factors on linguistic development is not the same. Before the Great Migration of Peoples, the ancient Germanic languages \u200b\u200bwere in Europe and were characterized by general diachronic tendencies.

The formation of the system of Old English and Old High German took place in accordance with the influence of the environment and the course of internal self-development. The direction of the internal processes in these languages \u200b\u200bwas the same, but the external conditions had differences. English was moved to the island of Britain, while High German remained one of the languages \u200b\u200bof Europe.

The ability of different language systems to self-development is different, due to the influence of external factors. Language contact can have a braking or accelerating effect on the evolution of the language.

Self-regulation of the language system is one of the important internal factors affecting the development of the language. Different levels have different ability to perceive, accumulate and assimilate innovations. The phonological level is relatively open. The phonological system was the first to actively accumulate innovation. The fixation of stress on the root morpheme and the subsequent weakening of flexion have become one of the most important innovations.

Phonological changes led to the restructuring of morphological paradigms in the systems of English and German. External factors had a stronger effect on the diachronic development of the English language system than on the German language system. The insular position and further contact with the language of the Scandinavians-Vikings and Normans led to an accelerated pace of language changes.

Recognizing the fact of the self-sufficiency of the linguistic system, we can trace the causes of systemic development and identify its stages. By stating the typology of these stages, when the same trends are detected, it is possible to determine the universal stages of evolution for a certain group of languages.

When reconstructing the evolutionary processes of the two Germanic languages, general trends are revealed, but the rate of actualization of language changes is not the same, due to the interaction of external and internal factors.

The theoretical significance of the study. The study of evolutionary trends reveals new facets of the existence of a language system, both at the synchronous and diachronic levels, which is of interest for the further development of diachronic linguistics. The inclusion of the stages of the evolution of the linguistic system in the range of typological studies will make a certain contribution to the theoretical rethinking of the issues of diachrony of the language. The development of the ideas contained in the dissertation can be continued on the material of other areas of linguistic knowledge and confirmed by various linguistic material. The results obtained in the course of linguistic analysis can be used to correct diachronic concepts. The material collected and systematized quantitatively is important for the linguistic and prognostic characteristics of the evolution of the language system in general.

The practical significance of the study. New general theoretical and applied conclusions can be used as basic or problematic for further diachronic studies of ancient and modern languages, reconstruction of their retrospective and prospective state. The work has applied value in terms of the correction of university teaching courses on the theory and history of language. The main provisions and conclusions of the dissertation research can be applied in lecture courses and in seminars on general linguistics, diachronic linguistics, comparative studies and the history of Germanic languages. The specific results of the work can be recommended to students, graduate students in order to improve the science of science, as well as to use when writing works on German studies, language theory and comparative historical linguistics.

Test approbation conducted in the form of reports at international and Russian scientific conferences at the universities of Belgorod (1996 - 2011), Zaporizhia (2002; 2003), Kharkov (2003), Voronezh (2004), Moscow (2004; 2005), Severodvinsk (2004), Rostov ( 2005), Kursk (2005), Armavira (2005), Volgograd (2005), Rostov-on-Don (2006). The results of the dissertation research were discussed at annual scientific conferences and meetings of the Department of the Second Foreign Language of Belgorod State University.

The dissertation materials are reflected in 47 publications with a total volume of about 80 pp, including two monographs, two dictionaries, 43 articles, including twelve articles in scientific journals recommended by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia.

The volume and structure of the work. The structure, content and volume of the dissertation is determined by the main goal and objectives. The dissertation consists of an introduction, four chapters, conclusion, Bibliography and Appendices.

29. Internal factors of language development.

It should be noted that the human body is by no means indifferent to how the linguistic mechanism works. He tries to react in a certain way to all those phenomena that arise in the linguistic mechanism that do not adequately correspond to certain physiological characteristics of the body. Thus, there is a constantly acting tendency to adapt the linguistic mechanism to the characteristics of the human body, which is practically expressed in trends of a more private nature. Here are examples of intralingual changes:
1) In phonetics: the emergence of new sounds (for example, in the early Proto-Slavic language there were no hissing: [w], [h], [w] - rather late sounds in all Slavic languages, resulting from softening of sounds, respectively [g], [ k], [x |); the loss of some sounds (for example, two sounds different before, cease to be different: for example, the Old Russian sound, denoted by the old letter%, in the Russian and Belarusian languages \u200b\u200bcoincided with the sound [e], and in Ukrainian - with the sound [I], cf. .-Russian. a & r, rus, belarusian, snow, ukr.
2) In grammar: the loss of some grammatical meanings and forms (for example, in the Proto-Slavic language, all names, pronouns and verbs had, in addition to the singular and plural forms, also the dual forms used when it came to two subjects; later the dual category numbers lost in all Slavic languages \u200b\u200bexcept Slovenian); examples of the opposite process: the formation (already in the written history of Slavic languages) of a special verb form - participle; the division of the formerly single name into two parts of speech - nouns and adjectives; the formation of a relatively new part in speech in the Slavic languages \u200b\u200b- the numeral. Sometimes the grammatical form changes without changing the meaning: before, cities, snow, and now cities, snow.
3) In vocabulary: numerous and extremely diverse changes in vocabulary, phraseology and lexical semantics. It is enough to say that in the publication "New words and meanings: Dictionary-guide on materials of the press and literature of the 70s / Edited by N. 3. Kotelova" SM., 1984. - PSA c), which included only the most notable innovations of ten years, about 5500 entries.

I. The trend towards easier pronunciation.

The presence in languages \u200b\u200bof a known tendency to facilitate pronunciation has been repeatedly noted by researchers. At the same time, there were skeptics who were inclined not to attach special importance to it. They motivated their skepticism by the fact that the very criteria of ease or difficulty of pronunciation are too subjective, since they are usually viewed through the prism of a particular language. What seems difficult to pronounce due to the action of a systemic “phonological synth” to a native speaker of one language may not present any difficulties for the native speaker of another language. Observations of the history of the development of the phonetic system of various languages \u200b\u200bof the world with sufficient convincing evidence also indicate that in all languages \u200b\u200bthere are relatively difficult to pronounce sounds and combinations of sounds, from which each language tends to free itself or turn them into easier sounds for pronunciation and combination of sounds.

II. The tendency to express different meanings in different forms.

The tendency to express different meanings in different forms is sometimes called repulsion from homonymy.

The Arabic language in the more ancient era of its existence had only two verb tenses - the perfect, for example, katabtu “I wrote” and the imperfect aktubu “I wrote”. These times were originally of species significance, but not temporary. As for their ability to express the relation of action to a specific time plan, in this respect the above times were polysemantic. So, for example, imperfect could have the meaning of the present, future and past tenses. This communicative inconvenience required the creation of additional funds. So, for example, the addition of the qad particle to the perfect forms contributed to a more precise delineation of the perfect proper, for example, qad kataba “He (already) wrote”. The addition of the sa- prefix to the imperfect forms, for example, sanaktubu “we will write” or “we will write” made it possible to more clearly express the future tense. Finally, the use of the perfect forms from the auxiliary verb kāna "be" in conjunction with the forms of imperfect, for example, kāna jaktubu "he wrote" made it possible to more clearly express the past long.

III. The tendency to express the same or similar meanings in one form.

This tendency is manifested in a number of phenomena widespread in various languages \u200b\u200bof the world, which are usually called the alignment of forms by analogy. Two most typical cases of alignment of forms can be noted by analogy: 1) alignment of forms that are absolutely identical in value but different in appearance and 2) alignment of forms that are different in appearance and reveal only partial similarity of functions or values.

Words like table, horse and son in the Old Russian language had specific endings in the dative instrumental and prepositional plural cases.

D. stol konem son

T. tables horse sons

P. stolkh konih sonh
In modern Russian, they have one common ending: tables, tables, tables; horses, horses, horses; sons, sons, sons. These common endings arose as a result of the transfer by analogy of the corresponding case endings of nouns representing the old foundations on -ā, -jā such as sister, earth, cf. other Russian sisters, sisters, sisters; lands, lands, lands, etc. For alignment by analogy, the similarity of case functions turned out to be quite sufficient.

IV. The tendency to create clear boundaries between morphemes.

It may happen that the boundary between the stem and suffixes is not clear enough due to the merging of the final vowel of the stem with the initial vowel of the suffix. So, for example, a characteristic feature of the types of declensions in the Indo-European language-basis was the preservation in the paradigm of the declension of the stem and its distinguishing feature, i.e., the final vowel stem. As an example, a reconstructed paradigm of the declension of the Russian word wife, compared with the paradigm of the declension of this word in modern Russian, can be cited as a comparison. Only singular forms are given.
I. genā wife
P. genā-s wives
D. genā-i wife
IN . genā-m wife
M. genā-i wife
It is easy to see that in the conjugation paradigm of the word wife, the previous axis of the paradigm - the basis on -ā - is no longer maintained due to its modification in indirect cases as a result<244> various phonetic changes that in some cases led to the merging of the vowel base and the vowel of the newly formed case suffix, for example, genāi\u003e gene\u003e wife, genām\u003e geno\u003e wife, etc. In order to restore clear boundaries between the word base and case suffix in the consciousness of the speakers was a re-decomposition of the foundations, and that sound that used to act as the final vowel of the foundation went to the suffix.

V. The trend towards language savings.

The tendency to save language resources is one of the most powerful internal trends that manifest themselves in various languages \u200b\u200bof the world. It can be a priori asserted that on the globe there is not a single language in which 150 phonemes, 50 verb tenses and 30 different plural endings can be distinguished. A language of this kind, burdened with a detailed arsenal of expressive means, would not facilitate, but, on the contrary, impede the communication of people. Therefore, each language has a natural resistance to excessive detail. In the process of using the language as a means of communication, often spontaneously and independently of the will of the speakers themselves, the principle of the most rational and economical selection of the language tools really necessary for communication is implemented.
The results of this trend are manifested in various areas of the language. So, for example, in one form of the instrumental case, its most diverse meanings can be contained: the instrumental figure, the creative circumstantial, the objective objective, the creative restriction, the creative predicative, the creative accepted, the instrumental comparison, etc. The genitive case has no less wealth. : genitive quantitative, genitive predicative, genitive affiliation, genitive weight, genitive object, etc. If each of these values \u200b\u200bwere expressed separately Second form, it would have led to the incredible awkwardness case system.
The vocabulary of the language, numbering many tens of thousands of words, opens up great opportunities for the implementation in the language of a huge number of sounds and their various shades. In reality, each language is content with a relatively small number of phonemes endowed with a meaning-distinguishing function. How are these few functions highlighted, no one has ever investigated. Modern phonologists study the function of phonemes, but not the history of their origin. One can only a priori assume that in this area there was some kind of spontaneous rational selection, subordinate to a certain principle. In each language, obviously, a selection of a complex of phonemes related to a useful contrast took place, although the appearance of new sounds in the language cannot be explained solely by these reasons. The principle of economy, apparently, is associated with a tendency to designate the same values \u200b\u200bin one form.

One of the most striking manifestations of the tendency to save is the tendency to create typical uniformity. Each language constantly strives to create a typical uniformity.

VI. The tendency to limit the complexity of voice messages.

The latest research suggests that psychological factors that limit the complexity of speech messages act in the process of generating speech.

The process of generating speech, in all likelihood, occurs by successively recoding phonemes into morphemes, morphemes into words and words into sentences. At some of these levels, transcoding is carried out not in the long-term, but in the human memory, the volume of which is limited and equal to 7 ± 2 characters of the message. Therefore, the maximum ratio of the number of units of the lower level of the language contained in one unit of a higher level, provided that the transition from the lowest to the highest level is carried out in RAM, cannot exceed 9: 1.

The capacity of RAM imposes restrictions not only on depth, but also on the length of words. As a result of a number of linguo-psychological experiments, it was found that with an increase in the length of words over seven syllables, a deterioration in the perception of the message is observed. For this reason, with an increase in the length of words, the probability of their occurrence in texts sharply decreases. This limit of perception of the length of words was found in experiments with isolated words. Context to a certain extent facilitates perception. The upper limit of perception of words in a context is approximately 10 syllables.
If we take into account the favorable role of context - intra-word and inter-word - in identifying words, we should expect that exceeding the critical length of words by 9 syllables, determined by the amount of RAM, greatly complicates their perception. The data of linguopsychological experiments definitely indicate that the volume of perception of the length and depth of words is equal to the volume of human memory. And in those styles of natural languages \u200b\u200bthat are oriented to the oral form of communication, the maximum length of words cannot exceed 9 syllables, and their maximum depth is 9 morphemes.

VII. A tendency to change the phonetic appearance of a word when it loses its lexical meaning.

This tendency is most clearly expressed in the process of turning a significant word into a suffix. So, for example, in the Chuvash language there is an instrumental case characterized by the suffix -pa, -pe, cf. Chuv. a pencil with a pencil, and with a force. This ending evolved from the postposition of palan, swaddling c

In English colloquial speech, the auxiliary verb have in perfect forms, having lost its lexical meaning, actually reduced to the sound "v, and the had form - to the sound" d, for example, I "v written" I wrote ", he" d written "he wrote " etc.

The phonetic appearance of a word changes in frequently used words in connection with a change in their original meaning. A vivid example is the nonphonetic falling away of the final r in the Russian word thank you, going back to the phrase God save. The frequent use of this word and the associated change in meaning save God\u003e thank you - led to the destruction of its original phonetic appearance.

Viii. The trend towards the creation of languages \u200b\u200bwith a simple morphological structure.

In the languages \u200b\u200bof the world there is a certain tendency to create a linguistic type, characterized by the simplest way to connect morphemes. It is curious that in the languages \u200b\u200bof the world an absolutely overwhelming majority are languages \u200b\u200bof the agglutinative type. Languages \u200b\u200bwith internal inflection are relatively rare.

This fact has its specific reasons. In agglutinating languages, morphemes are usually indicated, their boundaries in the word are defined. This creates a clear intra-word context that identifies morphemes in the longest sequences. This time, the advantage of agglutinative languages \u200b\u200bwas pointed out by I.N.Baudouin de Courtenay, who wrote the following on this subject: “Languages \u200b\u200bin which all the attention on the part of morphological exponents is concentrated on the affixes (Uralo-Altai languages \u200b\u200bafter the main morpheme (root)) , Finno-Finnish, etc.) are more sober and require a much lower expenditure of psychic energy than languages \u200b\u200bin which morphological exponents are the additions at the beginning of the word, and the additions at the end of the word, and psychophonetic alternatives and words. "

Internal causes of language development (Serebrennikov):

1. Adaptation of the linguistic mechanism to the physiological characteristics of the human body. For example, a tendency to facilitate pronunciation, a tendency to unify grammatical forms of words, a tendency to save language resources.

2. The need to improve the language mechanism. For example, in the process of development in a language, excessive means of expression are eliminated or have lost their function.

3. The need to maintain the language in a state of communicative fitness.

4. Resolution of internal contradictions in the language, etc.

But not all scientists agree to accept internal causes. Since language is a social and psychophysiological phenomenon. Without such conditions, it cannot develop. The development of the language is driven by external factors.

External factors of language development (Golovin, Berezin):

1. Associated with the development of society. An important role is played by the interaction of different peoples, due to migration, wars, etc. The interaction of languages \u200b\u200band their dialects is the most important stimulus for their development.

There are two types of language interaction: differentiation and integration.

Differentiation- the divergence of languages \u200b\u200band dialects due to the dispersal of peoples into vast territories.

Integration- the convergence of different languages. There are 3 types of integration: coexistence, mixing and crossing of languages.

Coexistence- This is a long-term and stable mutual influence of related languages, as a result of which some stable common features in their structure develop.

Mixing- united in language unions. Unlike coexistence mixing- This is such a kind of mutual influence when two languages \u200b\u200bcollide on their historical path, exert a significant influence on each other, and then diverge and continue to exist independently.

There are different degrees of mixing languages:

Easy mixing. High - observed in hybrid ersatzanguages.

Crossbreeding is a layering of two languages \u200b\u200bin which one language dissolves in another. That is, from two parents, languages, a third is born. Typically, this is the result of ethnic mixing by the wearer. One nation swallows another. As a result, the transition from one language to another is accompanied by bilingualism.

Supstrat and superstrat.

Supstrat- Elements of the language of the conquered people in a language that was transformed by crossing two other languages.

Superstratum- elements of the language of the winners formed in the third language.

There is a development of a variety of languages. Language development at its various levels:

1. Phonetic and phonological changes. Implemented more slowly than the rest. Factors are largely determined by the language system.

4 types of functional changes: a) the differential signs of phonemes can change, as a result of which the composition of phonemes changes (loss of inspiration, palatality and labilization - 6 phonemes remain); b) changes in the compatibility of phonemes. For example, the principle of increasing sonority has disappeared - as a result, unusual combinations of phonemes are now possible; c) change or decrease of phoneme options. For example, with the advent of reduction, vowels began to fall out; d) individual changes in a particular speech, all changes grow out of the individual speech of native speakers.

Reasons for phonetic changes:

1. The system factor is the internal logic of the development of the system (assimilation - loss of b, b, closing of syllables, etc.).

2. Articulatory-acoustic conditions of speech activity (nasal consonants disappeared).

3. Social factor - least of all, but changes also depend on the speaking person.

2. Changes in grammar. They are caused to a greater extent not by external causes, but due to the influence of system factors.

1. A change in form is associated with a change in content (many forms of declination have been lost - now the gender is important).

2. The process of analogy ( doctor- originally masculine, and now possibly feminine, that is, compatibility has changed).

3. The distribution of functions between similar elements (there used to be an extensive system of times).

These were internal factors.

External factors: as a result of the interaction of speakers of different languages, a grammar change can occur (as a result of the penetration of elements from another language). External factors in b aboutexcessive degrees affect vocabulary.

3. Lexical changes are caused by external causes. Types of lexical changes:

1. Morphemic derivation - the formation of a new word from the available morphemic material (computer + isation).

2. Lexical-semantic derivation:

a) the formation of a new meaning of the word as a result of rethinking the old;

b) the emergence of a new word as a result of rethinking the previous word.

3. Lexical-syntactic derivation - a combination of words “crosses” into one (today, immediately).

4. Compression - a combination of words with a common meaning was, but the meaning of one word was lost, the meaning of the phrase remained in the remaining word (complex - inferiority complex).

5. Borrowing - when a word is borrowed from another language. One of the varieties is tracing (pomorphic translation) (skyscraper - sky building), the other is semantic tracing (we borrow the meaning of the word) (in French, the nail is a vivid sight, hence the highlight of the program).

6. Loss of the token - the word leaves the language.

7. The process of archaizing a word (gone from the language) or meaning (godina).

8. Change the stylistic or semantic marking of the word.

9. The process of developing the stability of individual combinations of tokens.

10. The development of the ideomatism of individual combinations of lexemes (the integrity of the value and the non-derivability of the values \u200b\u200bof the components) (Indian summer - the warm season in the autumn).

The development of the Russian language is influenced by both external and internal factors. External factors in b abouta greater degree is due to changes in vocabulary, and to a lesser extent in phonetics and grammar.

1) In phonetics: the emergence of new sounds (for example, in the early Proto-Slavic language there were no hissing: [w], [h], [w] - rather late sounds in all Slavic languages, resulting from softening of sounds, respectively [g], [ k], [x |); the loss of some sounds (for example, two sounds different before, cease to be different: for example, the Old Russian sound, denoted by the old letter%, in the Russian and Belarusian languages \u200b\u200bcoincided with the sound [e], and in Ukrainian - with the sound [I], cf. .-Russian. a & r, rus, belarusian, snow, ukr.

2) In grammar: the loss of some grammatical meanings and forms (for example, in the Proto-Slavic language, all names, pronouns and verbs had, in addition to the singular and plural forms, also the dual forms used when it came to two subjects; later the dual category numbers lost in all Slavic languages \u200b\u200bexcept Slovenian); examples of the opposite process: the formation (already in the written history of Slavic languages) of a special verb form - participle; the division of the formerly single name into two parts of speech - nouns and adjectives; the formation of a relatively new part in speech in the Slavic languages \u200b\u200b- the numeral. Sometimes the grammatical form changes without changing the meaning: before, cities, snow, and now cities, snow.

3) In vocabulary: numerous and extremely diverse changes in vocabulary, phraseology and lexical semantics. It is enough to say that in the publication "New words and meanings: Dictionary-guide on materials of the press and literature of the 70s / Edited by N. 3. Kotelova" SM., 1984. - PSA c), which included only the most notable innovations of ten years, about 5500 entries.

I. The trend towards easier pronunciation.

II. The tendency to express different meanings in different forms.

The tendency to express different meanings in different forms is sometimes called repulsion from homonymy.

III. The tendency to express the same or similar meanings in one form.

Words like table, horse and son in the Old Russian language had specific endings in the dative instrumental and prepositional plural cases.

D. stol konem son

T. tables horse sons

P. stolkh konih sonh

In modern Russian, they have one common ending: tables, tables, tables; horses, horses, horses; sons, sons, sons. These common endings arose as a result of the transfer by analogy of the corresponding case endings of nouns representing the old foundations on -ā, -jā such as sister, earth, cf. other Russian sisters, sisters, sisters; lands, lands, lands, etc. For alignment by analogy, the similarity of case functions turned out to be quite sufficient.

IV. The tendency to create clear boundaries between morphemes.

I. genā wife

P. genā-s wives

D. genā-i wife

B. genā-m wife

M. genā-i wife

It is easy to see that in the conjugation paradigm of the word wife, the previous axis of the paradigm - the basis on -ā - is no longer maintained due to its modification in indirect cases as a result<244> various phonetic changes that in some cases led to the merging of the vowel base and the vowel of the newly formed case suffix, for example, genāi\u003e gene\u003e wife, genām\u003e geno\u003e wife, etc. In order to restore clear boundaries between the word base and case suffix in the consciousness of the speakers was a re-decomposition of the foundations, and that sound that used to act as the final vowel of the foundation went to the suffix.

V. The trend towards language savings.

The results of this trend are manifested in various areas of the language. So, for example, in one form of the instrumental case, its most diverse meanings can be contained: the instrumental figure, the creative circumstantial, the objective objective, the creative restriction, the creative predicative, the creative accepted, the instrumental comparison, etc. The genitive case has no less wealth. : genitive quantitative, genitive predicative, genitive affiliation, genitive weight, genitive object, etc. If each of these values \u200b\u200bwere expressed separately Second form, it would have led to the incredible awkwardness case system.

The vocabulary of the language, numbering many tens of thousands of words, opens up great opportunities for the implementation in the language of a huge number of sounds and their various shades. In reality, each language is content with a relatively small number of phonemes endowed with a meaning-distinguishing function. How are these few functions highlighted, no one has ever investigated. Modern phonologists study the function of phonemes, but not the history of their origin. One can only a priori assume that in this area there was some kind of spontaneous rational selection, subordinate to a certain principle. In each language, obviously, a selection of a complex of phonemes related to a useful contrast took place, although the appearance of new sounds in the language cannot be explained solely by these reasons. The principle of economy, apparently, is associated with a tendency to designate the same values \u200b\u200bin one form.

One of the most striking manifestations of the tendency to save is the tendency to create typical uniformity. Each language constantly strives to create a typical uniformity.

VI. The tendency to limit the complexity of voice messages.

The latest research suggests that psychological factors that limit the complexity of speech messages act in the process of generating speech.

If we take into account the favorable role of context - intra-word and inter-word - in identifying words, we should expect that exceeding the critical length of words by 9 syllables, determined by the amount of RAM, greatly complicates their perception. The data of linguopsychological experiments definitely indicate that the volume of perception of the length and depth of words is equal to the volume of human memory. And in those styles of natural languages \u200b\u200bthat are oriented to the oral form of communication, the maximum length of words cannot exceed 9 syllables, and their maximum depth is 9 morphemes.

VII. A tendency to change the phonetic appearance of a word when it loses its lexical meaning.

Viii. The trend towards the creation of languages \u200b\u200bwith a simple morphological structure.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Language code. Code switching and mixing

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Type - Incorporating Languages

In languages \u200b\u200bof this type, objects of action and circumstances of their fulfillment are expressed not by special members of the sentence (additions and circumstances), but by affixes that are part of the verb. Sometimes the subject of action (subject) can get an expression in the composition of the verb-predicate. Thus, all members of a sentence can be included in a single word, so they often say that sentence words function in incorporating languages.

In the Chinook language, the language of the Oregon Indians, the word "i-n-i-á-l-u-d-am" means "I specifically gave it to her." Consider what each of the morphemes means:

i - elapsed time;

n - 1st person singular;

i is the object of the action “this”;

á - the second object of the action “she”;

l - an indication that the object is not direct, but indirect (“her”);

u - an indication that the action is directed from the speaker;

d - root with the value “give”

am - an indication of the target completion of the action.

Languages \u200b\u200bchange over time. Obviously, these changes do not occur spontaneously, but in a certain direction. Since the language is closely connected with the life of society, changes in it are aimed at making it better serve the needs of communication within the language community that speaks that language.

Among the factors determining language changes, it is customary to distinguish between external and internal causes.

External are associated with the characteristic features of the language collective using the given language, and with the historical events that this language collective experiences. There is reason to believe that under the influence of the communication features typical of a given language group, each language gradually develops and improves those features that are inherent in one of the four types of languages \u200b\u200bduring its evolution.

If a language is used by a homogeneous in composition and numerous linguistic collective, then traits develop in it inflectivity and synthetism . For example, the Russian language, in which there are all the prerequisites for the formation of a large number of words that convey the finest shades of meaning (boy, boy, boy, boy, etc.) and for the ability to express grammatical meaning in different words with the help of various affixes.

If a linguistic collective mixes with another linguistic collective and becomes heterogeneous, then traits develop in the language analyticism : the number of affixes is reduced, and many grammatical meanings begin to be expressed using service words. It is such changes that the English language underwent in the process of its development.

If a language has long existed in a heterogeneous linguistic collective, then it can turn into a language isolating type. In this case, it loses all forms of inflection, and grammatical meanings begin to be expressed in it solely by word order or service words. Obviously, such a path has passed the Chinese language.

Incorporating languages \u200b\u200bare characteristic of very small, isolated collectives, whose members are so knowledgeable about all current events that they find enough short and succinct sentence words to exchange information, in which verb stems are combined with affixes denoting objects and circumstances of the action.